{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T13:57:54Z","timestamp":1780408674635,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,1]],"date-time":"2020-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1583020800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,1]],"date-time":"2020-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1583020800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/legal\/tdmrep-license"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776816000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":2243,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008982","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1612744"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1612744"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008982","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elsevier.com","sciencedirect.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,3]],"date-time":"2020-02-03T17:02:48Z","timestamp":1580749368000},"page":"74-96","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/elsevier_cm_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":109,"title":["Active Learning is About More Than Hands-On: A Mixed-Reality AI System to Support STEM Education"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"30","author":[{"given":"Nesra","family":"Yannier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott E.","family":"Hudson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kenneth R.","family":"Koedinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR1","unstructured":"Aleven, V., Koedinger, K. R. (2000) The need for tutorial dialog to support self-explanation. Building dialogue systems for tutorial applications, papers of the 2000 AAAI fall symposium."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021017","article-title":"Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning?","volume":"103","author":"Alfieri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR3","first-page":"35","article-title":"Constructivism in theory and practice: Toward a better understanding","volume":"84","author":"Applefield","year":"2000","journal-title":"The High School Journal"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benko, H., Jota, R., & Wilson, A. (2012, May). MirageTable: freehand interaction on a projected augmented reality tabletop. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 199-208). ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/2207676.2207704"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR5","unstructured":"Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000) How people learn."},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR6","first-page":"193","article-title":"Constructivist approaches to learning in science and their implications for science pedagogy: A literature review","volume":"3","author":"Cakir","year":"2008","journal-title":"International Journal of Environmental & Science Education"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR7","unstructured":"Chase, C.C., Shemwell, J.T., & Schwartz, D.L. (2010) Explaining across contrasting cases for deep understanding in science: An example using interactive simulations. Proceedings of the 2010 international conference of the learning sciences."},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2014.965823","article-title":"The ICAP framework: Linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes","volume":"49","author":"Chi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR9","first-page":"145","article-title":"Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems","volume":"13","author":"Chi","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christel, M. G., Stevens, S. M., Maher, B. S., Brice, S., Champer, M., Jayapalan, L., ... & Zhang, X. (2012) RumbleBlocks: Teaching science concepts to young children through a Unity game. In Computer Games (CGAMES), 17th International Conference on (pp. 162\u2013166). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/CGames.2012.6314570"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/S0883-0355(97)81235-9","article-title":"Cognitive task analysis for training","volume":"25","author":"Clark","year":"1996","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118255971"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corbett, A. T., and Anderson, J. R. (2001) Locus of feedback control in computer-based tutoring: Impact on learning rate, achievement and attitudes. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems. ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/365024.365111"},{"issue":"603","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1201783","article-title":"Improved learning in a large-enrollment physics class","volume":"332","author":"Deslauriers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1162\/INOV_a_00135","article-title":"The maker movement","volume":"7","author":"Dougherty","year":"2012","journal-title":"Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR16","unstructured":"Edelson, D., Pea, R., & Gomez, L. (1996). Constructivism in the collaboratory. Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design, 151."},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.100.3.363","article-title":"The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance","volume":"100","author":"Ericsson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014) Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 8410\u20138415.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1319030111"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654312457206","article-title":"Experimental and quasi-experimental studies of inquiry-based science teaching: A meta-analysis","volume":"82","author":"Furtak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, A., Fox, D., Curless, B., & Cohen, M. (2012). DuploTrack: A real-time system for authoring and guiding duplo block assembly. In Proceedings of the 25th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology (pp. 389-402). ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/2380116.2380167"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.17763\/haer.84.4.34j1g68140382063","article-title":"The maker movement in education","volume":"84","author":"Halverson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Harvard Educational Review"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR22","series-title":"Visible learning: A synthesis of 800+ meta-analyses on achievement","author":"Hattie","year":"2009"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR23","first-page":"16013","article-title":"Learning strategies: a synthesis and conceptual model. npj Science of Learning","volume":"1","author":"Hattie","year":"2016"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520701263368","article-title":"Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and","volume":"42","author":"Hmelo-Silver","year":"2007","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"issue":"36","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11199","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1505329112","article-title":"Teaching critical thinking","volume":"112","author":"Holmes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR26","unstructured":"https:\/\/designerlibrarian.wordpress.com\/2015\/10\/19\/the-recipe-for-successful-makerspace-design\/."},{"issue":"1","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/10598650.1998.11510362","article-title":"Constructivism in museums: How museums create meaningful learning environments","volume":"23","author":"Jeffery-Clay","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Museum Education"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02296434","article-title":"Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm?","volume":"39","author":"Jonassen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Educational Technology Research and Development"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR29","unstructured":"Kafai, Y. B., & Resnick, M. (1996). Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world. Routledge."},{"issue":"6","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1007\/s11251-009-9093-x","article-title":"Productive failure in mathematical problem solving","volume":"38","author":"Kapur","year":"2010","journal-title":"Instructional Science"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep4102_1","article-title":"Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching","volume":"41","author":"Kirschner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR32","unstructured":"Klahr, D. (2009) To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heavens: What about direct instruction?."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s10956-005-4423-5","article-title":"Cognitive research and elementary science instruction: From the laboratory, to the classroom, and back","volume":"14","author":"Klahr","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Science Education and Technology"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-6709.2012.01245.x","article-title":"The knowledge-learning-instruction framework: Bridging the science-practice chasm to enhance robust student learning","volume":"36","author":"Koedinger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"issue":"6161","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1238056","article-title":"Instructional complexity and the science to constrain it","volume":"342","author":"Koedinger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327809JLS1204_2","article-title":"Problem-based learning meets case-based reasoning in the middle-school science classroom: Putting learning by design (tm) into practice","volume":"12","author":"Kolodner","year":"2003","journal-title":"The Journal of the Learning Sciences"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lester, J. C., Converse, S. A., Kahler, S. E., Barlow, S. T., Stone, B. A., & Bhogal, R. S. (1997). The persona effect: affective impact of animated pedagogical agents. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 359\u2013366).","DOI":"10.1145\/258549.258797"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno, R. (2005). Multimedia learning with animated pedagogical agents. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/CBO9780511816819.032.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511816819.032"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno, R., Mayer, R. E., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. C. (2001). The case for social agency in computer-based teaching: Do students learn more deeply when they interact with animated pedagogical agents? Cognition and instruction, 19(2), 177\u2013213.","DOI":"10.1207\/S1532690XCI1902_02"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR40","unstructured":"National Research Council. (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press."},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.2.2.175","article-title":"Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises","volume":"2","author":"Nickerson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Review of General Psychology"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR42","series-title":"Children, computers, and powerful ideas","author":"Papert","year":"1980"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR43","first-page":"1","article-title":"Situating constructionism","volume":"36","author":"Papert","year":"1991","journal-title":"Constructionism"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2168-9830.2004.tb00809.x","article-title":"Does active learning work? A review of the research","volume":"93","author":"Prince","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Engineering Education"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR45","unstructured":"Resnick, M. (2014) \"Give P\u2019s a chance: Projects, peers, passion, play.\" Constructionism and creativity: Proceedings of the third international constructionism conference. Austrian computer society, Vienna."},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shapiro, L. (2010) Embodied cognition. Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203850664"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR47","series-title":"Constructivism in education","author":"Steffe","year":"1995"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR48","series-title":"Constructivist instruction: Success or failure?","author":"Tobias","year":"2009"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2004.10.039","article-title":"Co-lab: Research and development of an online learning environment for collaborative scientific discovery learning","volume":"21","author":"Van Joolingen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"7560","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1038\/523272a","article-title":"The science of teaching science","volume":"523","author":"Waldrop","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F., Ren, X., & Liu, Z. (2008). A robust blob recognition and tracking method in vision-based multi-touch technique. In 2008 IEEE International Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Processing with Applications (pp. 971\u2013974). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISPA.2008.129"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR52","unstructured":"White, R., & Gunstone, R. (1992). Prediction-observation-explanation. Probing understanding, 4."},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yannier, N., Koedinger, K. R., & Hudson, S. E. (2013, July). Tangible collaborative learning with a mixed-reality game: Earthshake. In international conference on artificial intelligence in education (pp. 131-140). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-39112-5_14"},{"key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yannier, N., Koedinger, K. R., & Hudson, S. E. (2015) Learning from mixed-reality games: Is shaking a tablet as effective as physical observation?. In proceedings of the 33rd annual ACM conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1045-1054). ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/2702123.2702397"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1145\/2934668","article-title":"Adding physical objects to an interactive game improves learning and enjoyment: Evidence from EarthShake","volume":"23","author":"Yannier","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI)"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1560429226007031?httpAccept=text\/xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.elsevier.com\/content\/article\/PII:S1560429226007031?httpAccept=text\/plain","content-type":"text\/plain","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T06:13:14Z","timestamp":1779084794000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkinghub.elsevier.com\/retrieve\/pii\/S1560429226007031"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["S1560429226007031"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["1560-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1560-4292","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Elsevier","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"Active Learning is About More Than Hands-On: A Mixed-Reality AI System to Support STEM Education","name":"articletitle","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education","name":"journaltitle","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40593-020-00194-3","name":"articlelink","label":"CrossRef DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"article","name":"content_type","label":"Content Type"},{"value":"Copyright \u00a9 2020 International Artificial Intelligence in Education Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}