{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T07:04:00Z","timestamp":1770966240668,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]],"date-time":"2025-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752710400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]],"date-time":"2025-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752710400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009193","name":"Marsden Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009193","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003524","name":"Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003524","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Complex Intell. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s40747-025-02004-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]],"date-time":"2025-07-17T15:40:37Z","timestamp":1752766837000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A new genetic programming approach to fine-grained flower image classification"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Qinyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Bi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Bing","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Mengjie","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2004_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2022.116680","volume":"197","author":"QU Ain","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ain QU, Al-Sahaf H, Xue B et al (2022) Genetic programming for automatic skin cancer image classification. Expert Syst Appl 197:116680","journal-title":"Expert Syst Appl"},{"issue":"16","key":"2004_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2012.02.123","volume":"39","author":"H Al-Sahaf","year":"2012","unstructured":"Al-Sahaf H, Song A, Neshatian K et al (2012) Two-tier genetic programming: Towards raw pixel-based image classification. Expert Syst Appl 39(16):12291\u201312301","journal-title":"Expert Syst Appl"},{"issue":"6","key":"2004_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2017.2685639","volume":"21","author":"H Al-Sahaf","year":"2017","unstructured":"Al-Sahaf H, Zhang M, Al-Sahaf A et al (2017) Keypoints detection and feature extraction: A dynamic genetic programming approach for evolving rotation-invariant texture image descriptors. IEEE Trans Evol Comput 21(6):825\u2013844","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Evol Comput"},{"key":"2004_CR4","first-page":"249","volume-title":"Recent Trends in Image Processing and Pattern Recognition, Revised Selected Papers, Part II 3","author":"H Ashturkar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ashturkar H, Bhalchandra A, Behare M (2021) Enhanced hog-lbp feature vector based on leaf image for plant species identification. Recent Trends in Image Processing and Pattern Recognition, Revised Selected Papers, Part II 3. Springer, Cham, pp 249\u2013258"},{"key":"2004_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atkins D, Neshatian K, Zhang M (2011) A domain independent genetic programming approach to automatic feature extraction for image classification. In: IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation (CEC), pp 238\u2013245","DOI":"10.1109\/CEC.2011.5949624"},{"issue":"2","key":"2004_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1109\/MCI.2020.2976186","volume":"15","author":"Y Bi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bi Y, Xue B, Zhang M (2020) An effective feature learning approach using genetic programming with image descriptors for image classification [research frontier]. IEEE Comput Intell Mag 15(2):65\u201377","journal-title":"IEEE Comput Intell Mag"},{"issue":"1","key":"2004_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2020.3002229","volume":"25","author":"Y Bi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bi Y, Xue B, Zhang M (2020) Genetic programming with image-related operators and a flexible program structure for feature learning in image classification. IEEE Trans Evol Comput 25(1):87\u2013101","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Evol Comput"},{"issue":"1","key":"2004_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2022.3220747","volume":"27","author":"Y Bi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bi Y, Xue B, Mesejo P et al (2022) A survey on evolutionary computation for computer vision and image analysis: past, present, and future trends. IEEE Trans Evol Comput 27(1):5\u201325","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Evol Comput"},{"key":"2004_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1463113","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2024.1463113","volume":"15","author":"Y Chen","year":"2025","unstructured":"Chen Y, Yang X, Yan H et al (2025) Chrysanthemum classification method integrating deep visual features from both the front and back sides. Front Plant Sci 15:1463113","journal-title":"Front Plant Sci"},{"key":"2004_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dalal N, Triggs B (2005) Histograms of oriented gradients for human detection. In: IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), pp 886\u2013893","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2005.177"},{"key":"2004_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2022.108509","volume":"118","author":"Q Fan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fan Q, Bi Y, Xue B et al (2022) Genetic programming for feature extraction and construction in image classification. Appl Soft Comput 118:108509","journal-title":"Appl Soft Comput"},{"key":"2004_CR12","first-page":"2171","volume":"13","author":"FA Fortin","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fortin FA, De Rainville FM, Gardner MA et al (2012) DEAP: evolutionary algorithms made easy. J Mach Learn Res 13:2171\u20132175","journal-title":"J Mach Learn Res"},{"key":"2004_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2021.107173","volume":"103","author":"H Ghazouani","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ghazouani H (2021) A genetic programming-based feature selection and fusion for facial expression recognition. Appl Soft Comput 103:107173. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.asoc.2021.107173","journal-title":"Appl Soft Comput"},{"key":"2004_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2020.113667","volume":"161","author":"H Ghazouani","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ghazouani H, Barhoumi W (2020) Genetic programming-based learning of texture classification descriptors from local edge signature. Expert Syst Appl 161:113667","journal-title":"Expert Syst Appl"},{"key":"2004_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giraddi S, Seeri S, Hiremath P et\u00a0al (2020) Flower classification using deep learning models. In: International Conference on Smart Technologies in Computing, Electrical and Electronics (ICSTCEE), pp 130\u2013133","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSTCEE49637.2020.9277041"},{"key":"2004_CR16","volume-title":"Deep learning with keras","author":"A Gulli","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gulli A, Pal S (2017) Deep learning with keras. Packt Publishing Ltd, New York"},{"issue":"8","key":"2004_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3203(98)00163-0","volume":"32","author":"SR Gunn","year":"1999","unstructured":"Gunn SR (1999) On the discrete representation of the Laplacian of Gaussian. Pattern Recogn 32(8):1463\u20131472","journal-title":"Pattern Recogn"},{"key":"2004_CR18","unstructured":"Gurnani A, Mavani V, Gajjar V et\u00a0al (2017) Flower categorization using deep convolutional neural networks. arXiv preprint arXiv:1708.03763. Accessed 15 Dec 2024"},{"issue":"4","key":"2004_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1007\/s11263-022-01575-y","volume":"130","author":"K Han","year":"2022","unstructured":"Han K, Wang Y, Xu C et al (2022) Ghostnets on heterogeneous devices via cheap operations. Int J Comput Vision 130(4):1050\u20131069","journal-title":"Int J Comput Vision"},{"issue":"6","key":"2004_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-cvi.2017.0155","volume":"12","author":"H Hiary","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hiary H, Saadeh H, Saadeh M et al (2018) Flower classification using deep convolutional neural networks. IET Comput Vision 12(6):855\u2013862","journal-title":"IET Comput Vision"},{"key":"2004_CR21","volume-title":"Genetic programming: on the programming of computers by means of natural selection","author":"JR Koza","year":"1992","unstructured":"Koza JR (1992) Genetic programming: on the programming of computers by means of natural selection. MIT Press"},{"key":"2004_CR22","unstructured":"Krizhevsky A, Sutskever I, Hinton G (2012) Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 25(2):1097\u20131105"},{"issue":"3","key":"2004_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"giaa017","DOI":"10.1093\/gigascience\/giaa017","volume":"9","author":"VNT Le","year":"2020","unstructured":"Le VNT, Ahderom S, Apopei B et al (2020) A novel method for detecting morphologically similar crops and weeds based on the combination of contour masks and filtered local binary pattern operators. GigaScience 9(3):giaa017","journal-title":"GigaScience"},{"issue":"11","key":"2004_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2278","DOI":"10.1109\/5.726791","volume":"86","author":"Y LeCun","year":"1998","unstructured":"LeCun Y, Bottou L, Bengio Y et al (1998) Gradient-based learning applied to document recognition. Proc IEEE 86(11):2278\u20132324","journal-title":"Proc IEEE"},{"key":"2004_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lensen A, Al-Sahaf H, Zhang M et\u00a0al (2016) Genetic programming for region detection, feature extraction, feature construction and classification in image data. In: European Conference on Genetic Programming, pp 51\u201367","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-30668-1_4"},{"key":"2004_CR26","first-page":"91","volume":"20","author":"D Lowe","year":"2003","unstructured":"Lowe D (2003) Distinctive image features from scale-invariant key points. Int J Comput Vision 20:91\u2013110","journal-title":"Int J Comput Vision"},{"key":"2004_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2017.02.026","volume":"56","author":"H Lu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lu H, Cao Z, Xiao Y et al (2017) Towards fine-grained maize tassel flowering status recognition: dataset, theory and practice. Appl Soft Comput 56:34\u201345","journal-title":"Appl Soft Comput"},{"key":"2004_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2023.110256","volume":"263","author":"Z Lu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lu Z, Lu Y (2023) Enhancing the reliability of image classification using the intrinsic features. Knowl-Based Syst 263:110256","journal-title":"Knowl-Based Syst"},{"key":"2004_CR29","unstructured":"Mavani V, Gurnani A, Shah J (2017) A novel approach for image segmentation based on histograms computed from hue-data. arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.09643. Accessed 15 Dec 2024"},{"issue":"2","key":"2004_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1162\/evco.1995.3.2.199","volume":"3","author":"DJ Montana","year":"1995","unstructured":"Montana DJ (1995) Strongly typed genetic programming. Evol Comput 3(2):199\u2013230","journal-title":"Evol Comput"},{"key":"2004_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mustfa AK, Abdulateef S, Hameed QA et\u00a0al (2024) Classification flower images based on deep learning and machine learning. International Symposium on Multidisciplinary Studies and Innovative Technologies (ISMSIT) pp 1\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ISMSIT63511.2024.10757203","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMSIT63511.2024.10757203"},{"key":"2004_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nilsback ME, Zisserman A (2006) A visual vocabulary for flower classification. In: IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), pp 1447\u20131454","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2006.42"},{"key":"2004_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nilsback ME, Zisserman A (2008) Automated flower classification over a large number of classes. In: Indian Conference on Computer Vision, Graphics & Image, pp 722\u2013729","DOI":"10.1109\/ICVGIP.2008.47"},{"issue":"6","key":"2004_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imavis.2009.10.001","volume":"28","author":"ME Nilsback","year":"2010","unstructured":"Nilsback ME, Zisserman A (2010) Delving deeper into the whorl of flower segmentation. Image Vis Comput 28(6):1049\u20131062","journal-title":"Image Vis Comput"},{"issue":"7","key":"2004_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2002.1017623","volume":"24","author":"T Ojala","year":"2002","unstructured":"Ojala T, Pietikainen M, Maenpaa T (2002) Multiresolution gray-scale and rotation invariant texture classification with local binary patterns. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 24(7):971\u2013987","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell"},{"issue":"1","key":"2004_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1979.4310076","volume":"9","author":"N Ostu","year":"1979","unstructured":"Ostu N (1979) A threshold selection method from gray-histogram. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern 9(1):62\u201366","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern"},{"key":"2004_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"P SD, Nischitha H (2023) Intra class flower recognition system using machine learning and neural networks. In: International Conference on Network, Multimedia and Information Technology (NMITCON), pp 1\u20137, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/NMITCON58196.2023.10276041","DOI":"10.1109\/NMITCON58196.2023.10276041"},{"key":"2004_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2024.111469","volume":"288","author":"H Parejas-Llanovarced","year":"2024","unstructured":"Parejas-Llanovarced H, Caro-Mart\u00ednez M, Orozco-del Castillo MG et al (2024) Case-based selection of explanation methods for neural network image classifiers. Knowl-Based Syst 288:111469","journal-title":"Knowl-Based Syst"},{"key":"2004_CR39","first-page":"2825","volume":"12","author":"F Pedregosa","year":"2011","unstructured":"Pedregosa F, Varoquaux G, Gramfort A et al (2011) Scikit-learn: machine learning in Python. J Mach Learn Res 12:2825\u20132830","journal-title":"J Mach Learn Res"},{"key":"2004_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pornpanomchai C, Sakunreraratsame P, Wongsasirinart R et\u00a0al (2010) Herb flower recognition system (hfrs). In: International Conference on Electronics and Information Engineering, (ICEIE), pp 1123\u20131127","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEIE.2010.5559906"},{"issue":"3","key":"2004_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1965.tb11715.x","volume":"128","author":"JM Prewitt","year":"1966","unstructured":"Prewitt JM, Mendelsohn ML (1966) The analysis of cell images. Ann N Y Acad Sci 128(3):1035\u20131053","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"key":"2004_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radosavovic I, Kosaraju RP, Girshick R et\u00a0al (2020) Designing network design spaces. In: IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp 10428\u201310436","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR42600.2020.01044"},{"key":"2004_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryan C, Fitzgerald J, Krawiec K et\u00a0al (2015) Image classification with genetic programming: Building a stage 1 computer aided detector for breast cancer. Handbook of Genetic Programming Applications pp 245\u2013287","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-20883-1_10"},{"key":"2004_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saitoh T, Aoki K, Kaneko T (2004) Automatic recognition of blooming flowers. In: International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR), pp 27\u201330","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPR.2004.1333997"},{"issue":"7","key":"2004_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1109\/TNNLS.2013.2293418","volume":"25","author":"L Shao","year":"2014","unstructured":"Shao L, Liu L, Li X (2014) Feature learning for image classification via multiobjective genetic programming. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst 25(7):1359\u20131371","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst"},{"key":"2004_CR46","unstructured":"Simonyan K, Zisserman A (2014) Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.1556. Accessed 15 Dec 2024"},{"key":"2004_CR47","volume-title":"Computer imaging: digital image analysis and processing","author":"SE Umbaugh","year":"2005","unstructured":"Umbaugh SE (2005) Computer imaging: digital image analysis and processing. CRC Press"},{"key":"2004_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/7068349","author":"A Voulodimos","year":"2018","unstructured":"Voulodimos A, Doulamis N, Doulamis A et al (2018) Deep learning for computer vision: a brief review. Comput Intell Neurosci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2018\/7068349","journal-title":"Comput Intell Neurosci"},{"key":"2004_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu Q, Wang J, Jiang B et al (2023) Fine-grained visual classification via internal ensemble learning transformer. IEEE Trans Multimed 25:9015\u20139028","DOI":"10.1109\/TMM.2023.3244340"},{"key":"2004_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2020.600854","volume":"11","author":"G Yang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yang G, He Y, Yang Y et al (2020) Fine-grained image classification for crop disease based on attention mechanism. Front Plant Sci 11:600854","journal-title":"Front Plant Sci"},{"key":"2004_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou D, Hou Q, Chen Y et\u00a0al (2020) Rethinking bottleneck structure for efficient mobile network design. In: European Conference Computer Vision (ECCV), pp 680\u2013697","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-58580-8_40"},{"issue":"1","key":"2004_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwy108","volume":"6","author":"ZH Zhou","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zhou ZH, Feng J (2018) Deep forest. Natl Sci Rev 6(1):74\u201386","journal-title":"Natl Sci Rev"}],"container-title":["Complex & Intelligent Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40747-025-02004-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40747-025-02004-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40747-025-02004-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,7]],"date-time":"2025-09-07T13:10:22Z","timestamp":1757250622000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s40747-025-02004-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["2004"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40747-025-02004-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2199-4536","2198-6053"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2199-4536","type":"print"},{"value":"2198-6053","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]]},"assertion":[{"value":"20 March 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 June 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no Conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict on interest"}}],"article-number":"390"}}