{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T10:28:55Z","timestamp":1774434535619,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771977600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772496000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":6,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001795","name":"University of Southern Queensland","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001795","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Complex Intell. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s40747-026-02256-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T19:43:54Z","timestamp":1772048634000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["51% attack vulnerability of nascent blockchains: a comprehensive review"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5414-4590","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Buti","family":"Sello","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jianming","family":"Yong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaohui","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"2256_CR1","unstructured":"Nakamoto S (2008) Bitcoin: a peer-to-peer electronic cash system. White Paper. https:\/\/bitcoin.org\/bitcoin.pdf"},{"issue":"4","key":"2256_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.3390\/fi17040157","volume":"17","author":"AG Anagnostakis","year":"2025","unstructured":"Anagnostakis AG, Glavas E (2025) The new CAP theorem on blockchain consensus systems. Future Internet 17(4):157","journal-title":"Future Internet"},{"issue":"2","key":"2256_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11432-019-2790-1","volume":"64","author":"X Fu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fu X, Wang H, Shi P (2021) A survey of blockchain consensus algorithms: mechanism, design and applications. SCIENCE CHINA Inf Sci 64(2):121101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11432-019-2790-1","journal-title":"SCIENCE CHINA Inf Sci"},{"key":"2256_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140549","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3119291","volume":"9","author":"FA Aponte-Novoa","year":"2021","unstructured":"Aponte-Novoa FA, Sandoval Orozco AL, Villanueva-Polanco R, Wightman P (2021) The 51% attack on blockchains: a mining behavior study. IEEE Access 9:140549\u2013140564. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3119291","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"2256_CR5","unstructured":"Crypto51 (2024) Cost of a 51% attack for different cryptocurrencies. https:\/\/www.crypto51.app\/"},{"key":"2256_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Budish E (2018) The economic limits of bitcoin and the blockchain. NBER working paper series. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3386\/w24717. https:\/\/www.nber.org\/papers\/w24717. Accessed 2025-06-11","DOI":"10.3386\/w24717"},{"key":"2256_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10393","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3352605","volume":"12","author":"S Tong","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tong S, Li J, Fu W (2024) An efficient and scalable byzantine fault-tolerant consensus mechanism based on credit scoring and aggregated signatures. IEEE Access 12:10393\u201310410. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3352605","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"9","key":"2256_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1109\/TPDS.2019.2900238","volume":"30","author":"Y Jiao","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jiao Y, Wang P, Niyato D, Suankaewmanee K (2019) Auction mechanisms in cloud\/fog computing resource allocation for public blockchain networks. IEEE Trans Parallel Distrib Syst 30(9):1975\u20131989. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TPDS.2019.2900238","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Parallel Distrib Syst"},{"issue":"2","key":"2256_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.4218\/etrij.2019-0362","volume":"43","author":"Y Abuidris","year":"2021","unstructured":"Abuidris Y, Kumar R, Yang T, Onginjo J (2021) Secure large-scale e-voting system based on blockchain contract using a hybrid consensus model combined with sharding. ETRI J 43(2):357\u2013370. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4218\/etrij.2019-0362 (https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.4218\/etrij.2019-0362)","journal-title":"ETRI J"},{"issue":"2","key":"2256_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.2298\/CSIS210507002W","volume":"19","author":"A Woznica","year":"2022","unstructured":"Woznica A, Kedziora M (2022) Performance and scalability evaluation of a permissioned blockchain based on the Hyperledger Fabric, Sawtooth and Iroha. Comput Sci Inf Syst 19(2):659\u2013678. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2298\/CSIS210507002W","journal-title":"Comput Sci Inf Syst"},{"issue":"6","key":"2256_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3538","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2896965","volume":"15","author":"J Xu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Xu J, Wang S, Bhargava BK, Yang F (2019) A blockchain-enabled trustless crowd-intelligence ecosystem on mobile edge computing. IEEE Trans Ind Inf 15(6):3538\u20133547. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TII.2019.2896965","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Ind Inf"},{"issue":"18","key":"2256_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3801","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12183801","volume":"12","author":"W Zhong","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhong W, Yang C, Liang W, Cai J, Chen L, Liao J, Xiong N (2023) Byzantine fault-tolerant consensus algorithms: a survey. Electronics 12(18):3801. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/electronics12183801","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"2256_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70746","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2986824","volume":"8","author":"P-C Kuo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kuo P-C, Chung H, Chao T-W, Cheng C-M (2020) Fair byzantine agreements for blockchains. IEEE Access 8:70746\u201370761. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2986824","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"9","key":"2256_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1788","DOI":"10.3390\/app9091788","volume":"9","author":"H Marco-Gisbert","year":"2019","unstructured":"Marco-Gisbert H, Sayeed S (2019) Assessing blockchain consensus and security mechanisms against the 51% attack. Appl Sci (Switzerland) 9(9):1788. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app9091788","journal-title":"Appl Sci (Switzerland)"},{"key":"2256_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gervais A, Karame GO, W\u00fcs K, Glykantzis V, Ritzdorf H, Capkun S (2016) On the security and performance of proof of work blockchains. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security (CCS). ACM, pp 3\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2976749.2978341","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978341"},{"key":"2256_CR16","unstructured":"CoinMarketCap (2024) Avalanche (AVAX) Price, Market Cap, and Info. Online cryptocurrency market data. https:\/\/coinmarketcap.com\/currencies\/avalanche\/"},{"issue":"3","key":"2256_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1093\/rfs\/hhaa075","volume":"34","author":"F Saleh","year":"2020","unstructured":"Saleh F (2020) Blockchain without waste: proof-of-stake. Rev Financ Stud 34(3):1156\u20131190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/rfs\/hhaa075 (https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/rfs\/article-pdf\/34\/3\/1156\/36264598\/hhaa075.pdf)","journal-title":"Rev Financ Stud"},{"key":"2256_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bentov I, Gabizon A, Mizrahi A (2017) Cryptocurrencies without proof of work. Ithaca","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-53357-4_10"},{"issue":"3","key":"2256_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1145\/2695533.2695545","volume":"42","author":"I Bentov","year":"2014","unstructured":"Bentov I, Lee C, Mizrahi A, Rosenfeld M (2014) Proof of activity: extending bitcoin\u2019s proof of work via proof of stake [extended abstract]y. SIGMETRICS Perform Eval Rev 42(3):34\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2695533.2695545","journal-title":"SIGMETRICS Perform Eval Rev"},{"key":"2256_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kiayias A, Russell A, David B, Oliynykov R (2017) Ouroboros: a provably secure proof-of-stake blockchain protocol. 10401, 357\u2013388. Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-63688-7_12","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-63688-7_12"},{"key":"2256_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"David B, Ga\u017ei P, Kiayias A, Russell A (2018) Ouroboros praos: An adaptively-secure, semi-synchronous proof-of-stake blockchain. In: Nielsen JB, Rijmen V (eds) Advances in Cryptology - EUROCRYPT 2018. Springer, Cham, pp 66\u201398","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-78375-8_3"},{"key":"2256_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Badertscher C, Ga\u017ei P, Kiayias A, Russell A, Zikas V (2018) Ouroboros genesis: composable proof-of-stake blockchains with dynamic availability. In: Proceedings of the 2018 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security (CCS). ACM, pp 913\u2013930. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3243734.3243848","DOI":"10.1145\/3243734.3243848"},{"key":"2256_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Canetti R (2001) Universally composable security: a new paradigm for cryptographic protocols. In: Proceedings 42nd IEEE symposium on foundations of computer science, pp 136\u2013145 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/SFCS.2001.959888","DOI":"10.1109\/SFCS.2001.959888"},{"key":"2256_CR24","series-title":"Lecture notes in computer science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-70936-7_4","volume-title":"Theory of cryptography","author":"R Canetti","year":"2007","unstructured":"Canetti R, Dodis Y, Pass R, Walfish S, Vadhan SP (2007) Universally composable security with global setup. Theory of cryptography, vol 4392. Lecture notes in computer science. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 61\u201385"},{"issue":"1","key":"2256_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-51578-7","volume":"14","author":"K Venkatesan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Venkatesan K, Rahayu SB (2024) Blockchain security enhancement an approach towards hybrid consensus algorithms and machine learning techniques. Sci Rep 14(1):1149. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-51578-7","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2256_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28712","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2901858","volume":"7","author":"E Deirmentzoglou","year":"2019","unstructured":"Deirmentzoglou E, Papakyriakopoulos G, Patsakis C (2019) A survey on long-range attacks for proof of stake protocols. IEEE Access 7:28712\u201328725. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2901858","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"7","key":"2256_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.3390\/su12072824","volume":"12","author":"A Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li A, Wei X, He Z (2020) Robust proof of stake: a new consensus protocol for sustainable blockchain systems. Sustainability 12(7):282. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su12072824","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"3","key":"2256_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1145\/357172.357176","volume":"4","author":"L Lamport","year":"1982","unstructured":"Lamport L, Shostak R, Pease M (1982) The byzantine generals problem. ACM Trans Program Lang Syst 4(3):382\u2013401. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/357172.357176","journal-title":"ACM Trans Program Lang Syst"},{"issue":"8","key":"2256_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.3390\/fi12080129","volume":"12","author":"IM Coelho","year":"2020","unstructured":"Coelho IM, Coelho VN, Araujo RP, Yong Qiang W, Rhodes BD (2020) Challenges of PBFT-inspired consensus for blockchain and enhancements over neo DBFT. Future Internet 12(8):129. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fi12080129","journal-title":"Future Internet"},{"key":"2256_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zilliqa Team (2017) The Zilliqa Technical Whitepaper. White Paper. https:\/\/docs.zilliqa.com\/whitepaper.pdf","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3442330"},{"key":"2256_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gilad Y, Hemo R, Micali S, Vlachos G, Zeldovich N (2017) Algorand: scaling byzantine agreements for cryptocurrencies. In: Proceedings of the 26th symposium on operating systems principles (SOSP). ACM, pp 51\u201368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3132747.3132757","DOI":"10.1145\/3132747.3132757"},{"key":"2256_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Losa G, Gafni E, Mazi\u00e8res D (2019) Stellar consensus by instantiation. In: 33rd International symposium on distributed computing (DISC 2019). Leibniz international proceedings in informatics (LIPIcs), vol 146. Schloss Dagstuhl-Leibniz-Zentrum f\u00fcr Informatik, pp 27\u201312715. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4230\/LIPIcs.DISC.2019.27. https:\/\/drops.dagstuhl.de\/entities\/document\/10.4230\/LIPIcs.DISC.2019.27","DOI":"10.4230\/LIPIcs.DISC.2019.27"},{"key":"2256_CR33","unstructured":"Mazi\u00e8res D. The Stellar consensus protocol: a federated model for internet-level consensus. https:\/\/stellar.org\/papers\/stellar-consensus-protocol"},{"key":"2256_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yin M, Malkhi D, Reiter MK, Gueta GG, Abraham I (2019) HotStuff: BFT consensus with linearity and responsiveness. In: Proceedings of the 2019 ACM symposium on principles of distributed computing (PODC). ACM, pp 347\u2013356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3293611.3331591","DOI":"10.1145\/3293611.3331591"},{"key":"2256_CR35","unstructured":"Kokoris-Kogias E, Jovanovic P, Gailly N, Khoffi I, Gasser L, Ford B (2016) Enhancing bitcoin security and performance with strong consistency via collective signing. In: 25th USENIX security symposium (USENIX security 16). USENIX Association, pp 279\u2013296. https:\/\/www.usenix.org\/conference\/usenixsecurity16\/technical-sessions\/presentation\/kogias"},{"key":"2256_CR36","unstructured":"Dash Core Group (2018) DIP 0008: ChainLocks. https:\/\/docs.dash.org\/projects\/core\/en\/stable\/docs\/dips\/dip-0008.html"},{"key":"2256_CR37","unstructured":"Pirl Team (2019) PirlGuard: innovative solution against 51% attacks. Pirl. https:\/\/docs.skypirl.tech\/blog\/news\/pirlguard-innovative-solution-against-51-attacks. Accessed 22 Oct 2024"},{"key":"2256_CR38","unstructured":"Komodo (2018) Delayed proof of work (dPoW)-Komodo. https:\/\/komodoplatform.com\/en\/docs\/historical\/whitepaper\/"},{"issue":"18","key":"2256_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6610","DOI":"10.3390\/en16186610","volume":"16","author":"A Khosravi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Khosravi A, S\u00e4\u00e4m\u00e4ki F (2023) Beyond bitcoin: Evaluating energy consumption and environmental impact across cryptocurrency projects. Energies 16(18):6610. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en16186610","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"2256_CR40","unstructured":"Chainspect (2025) Time to finality (TTF): understanding blockchain transaction speed. https:\/\/chainspect.app\/blog\/time-to-finality-ttf"},{"key":"2256_CR41","unstructured":"BTCScan (2025) How fast is bitcoin? BTC transaction speed explained. Accessed 06 Nov 2025. https:\/\/btcscan.org\/btc-transaction-speed"},{"key":"2256_CR42","unstructured":"Chainspect (2025) Fastest blockchains by transactions per second (TPS). Accessed 06 Nov 2025. https:\/\/chainspect.app\/dashboard"},{"issue":"3","key":"2256_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3905\/jai.2019.1.081","volume":"22","author":"S Shanaev","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shanaev S, Shuraeva A, Vasenin M, Ghazani MI (2019) Cryptocurrency value and 51% attacks: evidence from event studies. J Altern Invest 22(3):65\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3905\/jai.2019.1.081","journal-title":"J Altern Invest"},{"key":"2256_CR44","unstructured":"Voell Z (2020) Ethereum classic hit by third 51% attack in a month. CoinDesk. https:\/\/www.coindesk.com\/markets\/2020\/08\/29\/ethereum-classic-hit-by-third-51-attack-in-a-month"},{"key":"2256_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bonneau J (2015) Hostile blockchain takeovers (short paper). In: Financial cryptography and data security: FC 2018 international workshops, BITCOIN, VOTING, and WTSC, Nieuwpoort, Cura\u00e7ao, March 2, 2018, Revised Selected Papers 22. Springer, pp 92\u2013100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-662-58820-8_7","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-58820-8_7"},{"key":"2256_CR46","unstructured":"McIntyre D (2023) What is a 51% attack? Ethereum Classic Blog. https:\/\/ethereumclassic.org\/blog\/2023-11-21-what-is-a-51-attack\/"},{"key":"2256_CR47","unstructured":"Palmer D (2020) Bad actors rent hashing power to hit bitcoin gold with new 51% attacks. CoinDesk. https:\/\/www.coindesk.com\/tech\/2020\/01\/27\/bad-actors-rent-hashing-power-to-hit-bitcoin-gold-with-new-51-attacks"},{"key":"2256_CR48","unstructured":"Williams L (2020) Thanos hard fork upgrade (ECIP 1099: calibrate epoch duration). Ethereum Classic Blog. https:\/\/ethereumclassic.org\/blog\/2020-11-27-thanos-hard-fork-upgrade\/"},{"key":"2256_CR49","unstructured":"Williams L (2020) ECIP-1099: calibrate epoch duration. https:\/\/ecips.ethereumclassic.org\/ECIPs\/ecip-1099"},{"key":"2256_CR50","unstructured":"Ethereum Foundation (2023) The Merge: ethereum\u2019s transition to proof-of-stake. https:\/\/ethereum.org\/en\/roadmap\/merge\/"},{"key":"2256_CR51","unstructured":"Hacken (2023) The Hacken 2024 Web3 security report. Hacken Insights. https:\/\/hacken.io\/insights\/2024-security-report\/"}],"container-title":["Complex &amp; Intelligent Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40747-026-02256-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40747-026-02256-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s40747-026-02256-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T07:56:27Z","timestamp":1774425387000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s40747-026-02256-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["2256"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40747-026-02256-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["2199-4536","2198-6053"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2199-4536","type":"print"},{"value":"2198-6053","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"31 May 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"2 February 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest for this article.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval"}},{"value":"Not spplicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}}],"article-number":"120"}}