{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T09:53:38Z","timestamp":1768730018049,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,23]],"date-time":"2017-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1485129600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,23]],"date-time":"2017-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1485129600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int J Data Sci Anal"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,2]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s41060-016-0040-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,23]],"date-time":"2017-01-23T06:17:38Z","timestamp":1485152258000},"page":"1-21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Exposing the probabilistic causal structure of discrimination"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Francesco","family":"Bonchi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Hajian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Bud","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Daniele","family":"Ramazzotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4175","key":"40_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1126\/science.187.4175.398","volume":"187","author":"PJ Bickel","year":"1975","unstructured":"Bickel, P.J., Hammel, E.A., O\u2019Connell, J.W.: Sex bias in graduate admissions: data from Berkeley. Science 187(4175), 398\u2013404 (1975)","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"40_CR2","unstructured":"Brenner, E., Sontag, D.: Sparsityboost: A new scoring function for learning bayesian network structure. arXiv preprint \n                    arXiv:1309.6820\n                    \n                   (2013)"},{"key":"40_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buntine, W.: Theory refinement on bayesian networks. In: Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence, pp. 52\u201360. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc. (1991)","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-55860-203-8.50010-3"},{"issue":"4","key":"40_CR4","first-page":"309","volume":"9","author":"GF Cooper","year":"1992","unstructured":"Cooper, G.F., Herskovits, E.: A bayesian method for the induction of probabilistic networks from data. Mach. Learn. 9(4), 309\u2013347 (1992)","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"40_CR5","volume-title":"Discrimination and Privacy in the Information Society: Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics","author":"B Custers","year":"2012","unstructured":"Custers, B., Calders, T., Schermer, B., Zarsky, T.: Discrimination and Privacy in the Information Society: Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics, vol. 3. Springer, Berlin (2012)"},{"key":"40_CR6","volume-title":"Measuring Racial Discrimination","author":"M Dabady","year":"2004","unstructured":"Dabady, M., Blank, R.M., Citro, C.F., et al.: Measuring Racial Discrimination. National Academies Press, Washington (2004)"},{"key":"40_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dwork, C., Hardt, M., Pitassi, T., Reingold, O., Zemel, R.: Fairness through awareness. In: Proceedings of the 3rd Innovations in Theoretical Computer Science Conference, pp. 214\u2013226. ACM (2012)","DOI":"10.1145\/2090236.2090255"},{"key":"40_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199698462.001.0001","volume-title":"EU Anti-discrimination Law","author":"E Ellis","year":"2012","unstructured":"Ellis, E., Watson, P.: EU Anti-discrimination Law. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2012)"},{"key":"40_CR9","first-page":"1469","volume":"41","author":"SR Foster","year":"2004","unstructured":"Foster, S.R.: Causation in antidiscrimination law: beyond intent versus impact. Houst. Law Rev. 41, 1469 (2004)","journal-title":"Houst. Law Rev."},{"key":"40_CR10","unstructured":"Freedman, D., Pisani, R., Purves, R.: Statistics, 3rd edn. Norton, New york (1998)"},{"issue":"7","key":"40_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1109\/TKDE.2012.72","volume":"25","author":"S Hajian","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hajian, S., Domingo-Ferrer, J.: A methodology for direct and indirect discrimination prevention in data mining. IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng. 25(7), 1445\u20131459 (2013)","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng."},{"key":"40_CR12","unstructured":"Hajian, S., Domingo-Ferrer, J., Monreale, A., Pedreschi, D., Giannotti, F.: Discrimination-and privacy-aware patterns. Data Min. Knowl. Discov. 29(6), 1733\u20131782 (2015)"},{"key":"40_CR13","unstructured":"Hitchcock, C.: Probabilistic causation. In Zalta, E.N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, winter 2012 edn. (2012)"},{"key":"40_CR14","unstructured":"Hume, D., Hendel, C.W.: An inquiry concerning human understanding, vol. 49, Bobbs-Merrill Indianapolis (1955)"},{"key":"40_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199574131.001.0001","volume-title":"Causality in the Sciences","author":"PM Illari","year":"2011","unstructured":"Illari, P.M., Russo, F., Williamson, J.: Causality in the Sciences. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2011)"},{"key":"40_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeh, G., Widom, J.: Scaling personalized web search. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on World Wide Web, pp. 271\u2013279. ACM (2003)","DOI":"10.1145\/775152.775191"},{"issue":"1","key":"40_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10115-011-0463-8","volume":"33","author":"F Kamiran","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kamiran, F., Calders, T.: Data preprocessing techniques for classification without discrimination. Knowl. Inf. Syst. 33(1), 1\u201333 (2012)","journal-title":"Knowl. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"40_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139207799","volume-title":"Causality, Probability, and Time","author":"S Kleinberg","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kleinberg, S.: Causality, Probability, and Time. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2012)"},{"key":"40_CR19","volume-title":"Probabilistic Graphical Models: Principles and Techniques","author":"D Koller","year":"2009","unstructured":"Koller, D., Friedman, N.: Probabilistic Graphical Models: Principles and Techniques. MIT Press, Cambridge (2009)"},{"key":"40_CR20","unstructured":"Legislation, A.: Equal opportunity act\u2013Victoria state, (b) anti-discrimination act\u2013Queensland state (2008)"},{"key":"40_CR21","unstructured":"E. U. Legislation. European union legislation, (a) race equality directive, 2000\/43\/ec, 2000; (b) employment equality directive, 2000\/78\/ec, 2000; (c) equal treatment of persons, European Parliament legislative resolution (2009)"},{"key":"40_CR22","unstructured":"U.\u00a0F. Legislation. Us federal legislation, (a) equal credit opportunity act, (b) fair housing act, (c) intentional employment discrimination, (d) equal pay act, (e) pregnancy discrimination act, (f) civil right act. (2010)"},{"key":"40_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.2307\/2025310","volume":"70","author":"D Lewis","year":"1973","unstructured":"Lewis, D.: Causation. J. Philos 70, 56\u2013567 (1973)","journal-title":"J. Philos"},{"issue":"9","key":"40_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e108358","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0108358","volume":"10","author":"LO Loohuis","year":"2014","unstructured":"Loohuis, L.O., Caravagna, G., Graudenzi, A., Ramazzotti, D., Mauri, G., Antoniotti, M., Mishra, B.: Inferring tree causal models of cancer progression with probability raising. PLoS ONE 10(9), e108358 (2014)","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"40_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luong, B.T., Ruggieri, S., Turini, F.: k-nn as an implementation of situation testing for discrimination discovery and prevention. In: Proceedings of the 17th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining, pp. 502\u2013510. ACM (2011)","DOI":"10.1145\/2020408.2020488"},{"issue":"2","key":"40_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-014-9156-4","volume":"22","author":"K Mancuhan","year":"2014","unstructured":"Mancuhan, K., Clifton, C.: Combating discrimination using bayesian networks. Artif. Intell. Law 22(2), 211\u2013238 (2014)","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Law"},{"key":"40_CR27","unstructured":"Menzies, P.: Counterfactual theories of causation. In E.\u00a0N. Zalta, editor, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, spring 2014 edition, 2014"},{"key":"40_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1017\/S0266466603004110","volume":"19","author":"J Pearl","year":"2003","unstructured":"Pearl, J.: Causality: models, reasoning, and inference. Econom. Theory 19, 675\u2013685 (2003)","journal-title":"Econom. Theory"},{"key":"40_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedreschi, D., Ruggieri, S., Turini, F.: Integrating induction and deduction for finding evidence of discrimination. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, pp. 157\u2013166. ACM (2009)","DOI":"10.1145\/1568234.1568252"},{"key":"40_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedreschi, D., Ruggieri, S., Turini,F.: Measuring discrimination in socially-sensitive decision records. In: SDM, pp. 581\u2013592. SIAM (2009)","DOI":"10.1137\/1.9781611972795.50"},{"key":"40_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedreshi, D., Ruggieri, S., Turini, F.: Discrimination-aware data mining. In: Proceedings of the 14th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, pp. 560\u2013568. ACM (2008)","DOI":"10.1145\/1401890.1401959"},{"key":"40_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pons, P., Latapy, M.: Computing communities in large networks using random walks. In: Computer and Information Sciences-ISCIS 2005, pp. 284\u2013293. Springer (2005)","DOI":"10.1007\/11569596_31"},{"key":"40_CR33","unstructured":"Ramazzotti, D.: A model of selective advantage for the efficient inference of cancer clonal evolution. arXiv preprint \n                    arXiv:1602.07614\n                    \n                   (2016)"},{"key":"40_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3016","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btv296","volume":"31","author":"D Ramazzotti","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ramazzotti, D., Caravagna, G., Loohuis, L.O., Graudenzi, A., Korsunsky, I., Mauri, G., Antoniotti, M., Mishra, B.: Capri: efficient inference of cancer progression models from cross-sectional data. Bioinformatics 31, 3016\u20133026 (2015)","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"40_CR35","volume-title":"The Direction of Time","author":"H Reichenbach","year":"1991","unstructured":"Reichenbach, H., Reichenbach, M.: The Direction of Time, vol. 65. University of California Press, Berkeley (1991)"},{"key":"40_CR36","unstructured":"Romei, A., Ruggieri, S.: A multidisciplinary survey on discrimination analysis. Knowl. Eng. Rev. 29(05), 582\u2013638 (2014)"},{"key":"40_CR37","unstructured":"Rorive, I.: Proving discrimination cases: the role of situation testing, Centre for Equal Rights and MPG (2009)"},{"key":"40_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruggieri, S., Hajian, S., Kamiran, F., Zhang, X.: Anti-discrimination analysis using privacy attack strategies. In: Joint European Conference on Machine Learning and Knowledge Discovery in Databases, pp 694\u2013710. Springer (2014)","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-44851-9_44"},{"issue":"2","key":"40_CR39","first-page":"9","volume":"4","author":"S Ruggieri","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ruggieri, S., Pedreschi, D., Turini, F.: Data mining for discrimination discovery. ACM Trans. Knowl. Discov. Data (TKDD) 4(2), 9 (2010)","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Knowl. Discov. Data (TKDD)"},{"issue":"2","key":"40_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1214\/aos\/1176344136","volume":"6","author":"G Schwarz","year":"1978","unstructured":"Schwarz, G.: Estimating the dimension of a model. Ann. Stat. 6(2), 461\u2013464 (1978)","journal-title":"Ann. Stat."},{"key":"40_CR41","volume-title":"A Probabilistic Theory of Causality","author":"P Suppes","year":"1970","unstructured":"Suppes, P.: A Probabilistic Theory of Causality. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam (1970)"},{"issue":"40","key":"40_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12349","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1502868112","volume":"112","author":"R van der Lee","year":"2015","unstructured":"van der Lee, R., Ellemers, N.: Gender contributes to personal research funding success in the Netherlands. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112(40), 12349\u201312353 (2015)","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"40_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Volker, B., Steenbeek, W.: No evidence that gender contributes to personal research funding success in the Netherlands: a reaction to van der Lee and Ellemers. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, pp. 201519046 (2015)","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1519046112"},{"key":"40_CR44","unstructured":"Woodward, J.: Causation and manipulability. In Zalta, E.\u00a0N. (ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, winter 2013 edition (2013)"},{"key":"40_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zliobaite, I., Kamiran, F., Calders, T.: Handling conditional discrimination. In: Data Mining (ICDM), 2011 IEEE 11th International Conference on, pp. 992\u20131001. IEEE (2011)","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDM.2011.72"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1007\/s41060-019-00184-2","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,8]],"date-time":"2019-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1554681600000}}],"container-title":["International Journal of Data Science and Analytics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s41060-016-0040-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s41060-016-0040-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s41060-016-0040-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,16]],"date-time":"2020-09-16T22:47:34Z","timestamp":1600296454000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s41060-016-0040-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,23]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,2]]}},"alternative-id":["40"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s41060-016-0040-z","relation":{"correction":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1007\/s41060-019-00184-2","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2364-415X","2364-4168"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2364-415X","type":"print"},{"value":"2364-4168","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 May 2016","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 December 2016","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 January 2017","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 April 2019","order":4,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":5,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"In the original publication of the paper, the in-text citation for reference 33 was published in the incorrect place. The citation currently appears in the following sentence: \ufffd\ufffd\ufffdBased on a detailed empirical analysis of Kleinberg [33] and her coauthors \ufffd\ufffd\ufffd.\ufffd\ufffd\ufffd","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 April 2019","order":5,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":5,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"In the original publication of the paper, the in-text citation for reference 33 was published in the incorrect place. The citation currently appears in the following sentence: \ufffd\ufffd\ufffdBased on a detailed empirical analysis of Kleinberg [33] and her coauthors \ufffd\ufffd\ufffd.\ufffd\ufffd\ufffd","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Compliance with ethical standards"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"This content has been made available to all.","name":"free","label":"Free to read"}]}}