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Due to the presence of human reaction delays, stability of this task is not guaranteed; however, assisting the human with an impedance controller within the manipulator can help promote stability. Motivated by studies focusing on low-order dynamics humans interact with, here the human behavior is also considered either as a lead or a lag compensator. We investigate the arising HILS based on stability theory and reveal the parametric conditions achieving closed-loop stability. Additionally, we obtain various trade-offs between human energy required to perform the task, how much overshoot is expected and how fast the task can be completed, including insights for cases where the machine has multi-degrees of freedom. Results provide distinguishing advantages between a lead or a lag-type human behavior, and further guide the design of HILS found in rehabilitation robotics and tele-operation systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s41315-025-00459-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]],"date-time":"2025-06-03T07:20:14Z","timestamp":1748935214000},"page":"1755-1776","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Stability and performance trade-offs in a human-in-the-loop system with a distributed impedance control architecture"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Yijie","family":"Lu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rifat","family":"Sipahi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"459_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2018.2791570","volume":"48","author":"DA Abbink","year":"2018","unstructured":"Abbink, D.A., Carlson, T., Mulder, M., De Winter, J.C., Aminravan, F., Gibo, T.L., Boer, E.R.: A topology of shared control systems-finding common ground in diversity. 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