{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T05:04:43Z","timestamp":1779858283903,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770249600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770249600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001695","name":"Japan Science and Technology Corporation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JPMJSP2114"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJSP2114"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001695","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001695","name":"Japan Science and Technology Corporation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP24K03007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP24K03007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001695","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001695","name":"Japan Science and Technology Corporation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JPMJPR21RA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJPR21RA"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001695","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001695","name":"Japan Science and Technology Corporation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP24K07699"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP24K07699"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001695","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001695","name":"Japan Science and Technology Corporation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP24H01473"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP24H01473"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001695","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Comput Soc Sc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Understanding human mobility is vital to solving societal challenges, such as epidemic control and urban transportation optimization. Recent advancements in data collection now enable the exploration of dynamic mobility patterns in human flow. However, the vast volume and complexity of mobility data make it difficult to interpret spatiotemporal patterns directly, necessitating effective information reduction. The core challenge is to balance data simplification with information preservation: methods must retain location-specific information about human flows from origins to destinations while reducing the data to a comprehensible level. This study proposes a two-step dimensionality reduction framework: First, combinatorial Hodge theory is applied to the given origin\u2013destination (OD) matrices with timestamps to construct a set of potential landscapes of human flow, preserving imbalanced trip information between locations. Second, principal component analysis (PCA) expresses the time series of potential landscapes as a linear combination of a few static spatial components, with their coefficients representing temporal variations. The framework systematically decouples the spatial and temporal components of the given data. By implementing this two-step reduction method, we reveal large weight variations during a pandemic, characterized by an overall decline in mobility and stark contrasts between weekdays and holidays. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of our framework in uncovering complex mobility patterns and its potential to inform urban planning and public health interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s42001-025-00454-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T09:03:56Z","timestamp":1770282236000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Potential landscapes reveal spatiotemporal structure in urban mobility: Hodge decomposition and principal component analysis of Tokyo before and during COVID-19"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1785-6919","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunhan","family":"Du","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3312-3061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takaaki","family":"Aoki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7753-4698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naoya","family":"Fujiwara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"454_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2284-y","volume":"582","author":"JS Jia","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jia, J. S., Lu, X., Yuan, Y., Xu, G., Jia, J., & Christakis, N. A. (2020). Population flow drives spatio-temporal distribution of COVID-19 in China. Nature, 582, 389\u2013394.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"454_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1125237","volume":"312","author":"C Viboud","year":"2006","unstructured":"Viboud, C., Bj\u00f8rnstad, O. N., Smith, D. L., Simonsen, L., Miller, M. A., & Grenfell, B. T. (2006). Synchrony, waves, and spatial hierarchies in the spread of influenza. Science, 312, 447\u2013451.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"454_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1038\/s42005-021-00679-0","volume":"4","author":"S Hazarie","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hazarie, S., Soriano-Pa\u00f1os, D., Arenas, A., G\u00f3mez-Garde\u00f1es, J., & Ghoshal, G. (2021). Interplay between population density and mobility in determining the spread of epidemics in cities. Communications Physics, 4, 191.","journal-title":"Communications Physics"},{"key":"454_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds31","volume":"3","author":"A Amini","year":"2014","unstructured":"Amini, A., Kung, K., Kang, C., Sobolevsky, S., & Ratti, C. (2014). The impact of social segregation on human mobility in developing and industrialized regions. EPJ Data Science, 3, 1\u201320.","journal-title":"EPJ Data Science"},{"key":"454_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4633","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-24899-8","volume":"12","author":"E Moro","year":"2021","unstructured":"Moro, E., Calacci, D., Dong, X., & Pentland, A. (2021). Mobility patterns are associated with experienced income segregation in large US cities. Nature Communications, 12, 4633.","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"454_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-023-00390-w","volume":"12","author":"Y Yang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Pentland, A., & Moro, E. (2023). Identifying latent activity behaviors and lifestyles using mobility data to describe urban dynamics. EPJ Data Science, 12, 15.","journal-title":"EPJ Data Science"},{"key":"454_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-020-0500-x","volume":"7","author":"L Gauvin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gauvin, L., Tizzoni, M., Piaggesi, S., Young, A., Adler, N., Verhulst, S., Ferres, L., & Cattuto, C. (2020). Gender gaps in urban mobility. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 7, 1\u201313.","journal-title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications"},{"key":"454_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collins, T., Di\u00a0Clemente, R., Guti\u00e9rrez-Roig, M., & Botta, F. (2023). Spatiotemporal gender differences in urban vibrancy. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 23998083231209073.","DOI":"10.1177\/23998083231209073"},{"key":"454_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0095-1","volume":"557","author":"MM Vazifeh","year":"2018","unstructured":"Vazifeh, M. M., Santi, P., Resta, G., Strogatz, S. H., & Ratti, C. (2018). Addressing the minimum fleet problem in on-demand urban mobility. Nature, 557, 534\u2013538.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"454_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-021-00267-w","volume":"10","author":"Y Xu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Clemente, R. D., & Gonz\u00e1lez, M. C. (2021). Understanding vehicular routing behavior with location-based service data. EPJ Data Science, 10, 1\u201317.","journal-title":"EPJ Data Science"},{"key":"454_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1038\/s43588-021-00130-y","volume":"1","author":"C Bongiorno","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bongiorno, C., Zhou, Y., Kryven, M., Theurel, D., Rizzo, A., Santi, P., Tenenbaum, J., & Ratti, C. (2021). Vector-based pedestrian navigation in cities. Nature Computational Science, 1, 678\u2013685.","journal-title":"Nature Computational Science"},{"key":"454_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1500445","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500445","volume":"2","author":"R Gallotti","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gallotti, R., Porter, M. A., & Barthelemy, M. (2016). Lost in transportation: Information measures and cognitive limits in multilayer navigation. Science Advances, 2, 1500445.","journal-title":"Science Advances"},{"key":"454_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2001017","volume":"382","author":"N Zhu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhu, N., Zhang, D., Wang, W., Li, X., Yang, B., Song, J., Zhao, X., Huang, B., Shi, W., Lu, R., Niu, P., Zhan, F., Ma, X., Wang, D., Xu, W., Wu, G., Gao, G. F., & Tan, W. (2020). A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 727\u2013733.","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"454_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-015-0046-0","volume":"4","author":"VD Blondel","year":"2015","unstructured":"Blondel, V. D., Decuyper, A., & Krings, G. (2015). A survey of results on mobile phone datasets analysis. EPJ Data Science, 4, 1\u201355.","journal-title":"EPJ Data Science"},{"key":"454_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2743025","volume":"6","author":"Y Zheng","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zheng, Y. (2015). Trajectory data mining: an overview. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology (TIST), 6, 1\u201341.","journal-title":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology (TIST)"},{"key":"454_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, K., Tarkoma, S., Liu, S., & Vo, H. (2016). Urban human mobility data mining: An overview. In 2016 IEEE international conference on big data (big data), (pp. 1911\u20131920).","DOI":"10.1109\/BigData.2016.7840811"},{"key":"454_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2018.2815678","volume":"20","author":"L Zhu","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zhu, L., Yu, F. R., Wang, Y., Ning, B., & Tang, T. (2018). Big data analytics in intelligent transportation systems: A survey. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 20, 383\u2013398.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems"},{"key":"454_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2022.101777","volume":"94","author":"T Yabe","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yabe, T., Jones, N. K., Rao, P. S. C., Gonzalez, M. C., & Ukkusuri, S. V. (2022). Mobile phone location data for disasters: A review from natural hazards and epidemics. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 94, Article 101777.","journal-title":"Computers, Environment and Urban Systems"},{"key":"454_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.2307\/2087063","volume":"11","author":"GK Zipf","year":"1946","unstructured":"Zipf, G. K. (1946). The p1 p2\/d hypothesis: On the intercity movement of persons. American Sociological Review, 11, 677\u2013686.","journal-title":"American Sociological Review"},{"key":"454_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.2307\/2084520","volume":"5","author":"SA Stouffer","year":"1940","unstructured":"Stouffer, S. A. (1940). Intervening opportunities: A theory relating mobility and distance. American Sociological Review, 5, 845\u2013867.","journal-title":"American Sociological Review"},{"key":"454_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1068\/a220527","volume":"22","author":"TJ Fik","year":"1990","unstructured":"Fik, T. J., & Mulligan, G. F. (1990). Spatial flows and competing central places: Towards a general theory of hierarchical interaction. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 22, 527\u2013549.","journal-title":"Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space"},{"key":"454_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00011468","volume":"3","author":"S Akwawua","year":"2001","unstructured":"Akwawua, S., & Pooler, J. A. (2001). The development of an intervening opportunities model with spatial dominance effects. Journal of Geographical Systems, 3, 69\u201386.","journal-title":"Journal of Geographical Systems"},{"key":"454_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/ca85bf7a-7922-47d5-8bfb-bcdf25af8c72","volume":"7","author":"A Noulas","year":"2012","unstructured":"Noulas, A., Scellato, S., Lambiotte, R., Pontil, M., & Mascolo, C. (2012). A tale of many cities: Universal patterns in human urban mobility. PLOS ONE, 7, 1\u201310.","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"454_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20150315","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2015.0315","volume":"12","author":"A Sim","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sim, A., Yaliraki, S. N., Barahona, M., & Stumpf, M. P. H. (2015). Great cities look small. Journal of The Royal Society Interface, 12, 20150315.","journal-title":"Journal of The Royal Society Interface"},{"key":"454_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10856","volume":"484","author":"F Simini","year":"2012","unstructured":"Simini, F., Gonz\u00e1lez, M. C., Maritan, A., & Barab\u00e1si, A.-L. (2012). A universal model for mobility and migration patterns. Nature, 484, 96\u2013100.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"454_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2983","DOI":"10.1038\/srep02983","volume":"3","author":"X Liang","year":"2013","unstructured":"Liang, X., Zhao, J., Dong, L., & Xu, K. (2013). Unraveling the origin of exponential law in intra-urban human mobility. Scientific Reports, 3, 2983.","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"454_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20140834","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2014.0834","volume":"11","author":"X-Y Yan","year":"2014","unstructured":"Yan, X.-Y., Zhao, C., Fan, Y., Di, Z., & Wang, W.-X. (2014). Universal predictability of mobility patterns in cities. Journal of The Royal Society Interface, 11, 20140834.","journal-title":"Journal of The Royal Society Interface"},{"key":"454_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5347","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6347","volume":"5","author":"Y Ren","year":"2014","unstructured":"Ren, Y., Ercsey-Ravasz, M., Wang, P., Gonz\u00e1lez, M. C., & Toroczkai, Z. (2014). Predicting commuter flows in spatial networks using a radiation model based on temporal ranges. Nature Communications, 5, 5347.","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"454_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0143500","volume":"10","author":"C Kang","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kang, C., Liu, Y., Guo, D., & Qin, K. (2015). A generalized radiation model for human mobility: Spatial scale, searching direction and trip constraint. PLOS ONE, 10, 1\u201311.","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"454_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-018-0167-3","volume":"7","author":"L Varga","year":"2018","unstructured":"Varga, L., T\u00f3th, G., & N\u00e9da, Z. (2018). Commuting patterns: the flow and jump model and supporting data. EPJ Data Science, 7, 37.","journal-title":"EPJ Data Science"},{"key":"454_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2019.04.259","volume":"526","author":"E Liu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Liu, E., & Yan, X. (2019). New parameter-free mobility model: Opportunity priority selection model. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 526, Article 121023.","journal-title":"Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications"},{"key":"454_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4657","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-61613-y","volume":"10","author":"E-J Liu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Liu, E.-J., & Yan, X.-Y. (2020). A universal opportunity model for human mobility. Scientific Reports, 10, 4657.","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"454_CR33","first-page":"71","volume":"71","author":"Y Du","year":"2022","unstructured":"Du, Y., & Fujiwara, N. (2022). A modified radiation model for human mobility: Effects of distinct job-seeker expectation and job-offer benefit distributions. IEICE Proceedings Series, 71, 71\u2013404.","journal-title":"IEICE Proceedings Series"},{"key":"454_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8166","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9166","volume":"6","author":"L Pappalardo","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pappalardo, L., Simini, F., Rinzivillo, S., Pedreschi, D., Giannotti, F., & Barab\u00e1si, A.-L. (2015). Returners and explorers dichotomy in human mobility. Nature Communications, 6, 8166.","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"454_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03480-9","volume":"593","author":"M Schl\u00e4pfer","year":"2021","unstructured":"Schl\u00e4pfer, M., Dong, L., O\u2019Keeffe, K., Santi, P., Szell, M., Salat, H., Anklesaria, S., Vazifeh, M., Ratti, C., & West, G. B. (2021). The universal visitation law of human mobility. Nature, 593, 522\u2013527.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"454_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-015-0059-8","volume":"4","author":"H Barbosa","year":"2015","unstructured":"Barbosa, H., Lima-Neto, F. B., Evsukoff, A., & Menezes, R. (2015). The effect of recency to human mobility. EPJ Data Science, 4, 21.","journal-title":"EPJ Data Science"},{"key":"454_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-018-0364-x","volume":"2","author":"L Alessandretti","year":"2018","unstructured":"Alessandretti, L., Sapiezynski, P., Sekara, V., Lehmann, S., & Baronchelli, A. (2018). Evidence for a conserved quantity in human mobility. Nature Human Behaviour, 2, 485\u2013491.","journal-title":"Nature Human Behaviour"},{"key":"454_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2020.125674","volume":"567","author":"J Lv","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lv, J., Zhao, C., & Zeng, A. (2021). Bursty visitation of locations in human mobility. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 567, Article 125674.","journal-title":"Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications"},{"key":"454_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04292","volume":"439","author":"D Brockmann","year":"2006","unstructured":"Brockmann, D., Hufnagel, L., & Geisel, T. (2006). The scaling laws of human travel. Nature, 439, 462\u2013465.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"454_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06958","volume":"453","author":"MC Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2008","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez, M. C., Hidalgo, C. A., & Barab\u00e1si, A.-L. (2008). Understanding individual human mobility patterns. Nature, 453, 779\u2013782.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"454_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1038\/nphys1760","volume":"6","author":"C Song","year":"2010","unstructured":"Song, C., Koren, T., Wang, P., & Barab\u00e1si, A.-L. (2010). Modelling the scaling properties of human mobility. Nature Physics, 6, 818\u2013823.","journal-title":"Nature Physics"},{"key":"454_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1177170","volume":"327","author":"C Song","year":"2010","unstructured":"Song, C., Qu, Z., Blumm, N., & Barab\u00e1si, A.-L. (2010). Limits of predictability in human mobility. Science, 327, 1018\u20131021.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"454_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20130246","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2013.0246","volume":"10","author":"CM Schneider","year":"2013","unstructured":"Schneider, C. M., Belik, V., Couronn\u00e9, T., Smoreda, Z., & Gonz\u00e1lez, M. C. (2013). Unravelling daily human mobility motifs. Journal of The Royal Society Interface, 10, 20130246.","journal-title":"Journal of The Royal Society Interface"},{"key":"454_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1729","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-023-01660-3","volume":"7","author":"C Santana","year":"2023","unstructured":"Santana, C., Botta, F., Barbosa, H., Privitera, F., Menezes, R., & Di Clemente, R. (2023). COVID-19 is linked to changes in the time-space dimension of human mobility. Nature Human Behaviour, 7, 1729\u20131739.","journal-title":"Nature Human Behaviour"},{"key":"454_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-020-0875-0","volume":"4","author":"MU Kraemer","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kraemer, M. U., Sadilek, A., Zhang, Q., Marchal, N. A., Tuli, G., Cohn, E. L., Hswen, Y., Perkins, T. A., Smith, D. L., Reiner, R. C., Jr., & Brownstein, J. S. (2020). Mapping global variation in human mobility. Nature Human Behaviour, 4, 800\u2013810.","journal-title":"Nature Human Behaviour"},{"key":"454_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1007\/s10955-012-0645-0","volume":"151","author":"S Hasan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hasan, S., Schneider, C. M., Ukkusuri, S. V., & Gonz\u00e1lez, M. C. (2013). Spatiotemporal patterns of urban human mobility. Journal of Statistical Physics, 151, 304\u2013318.","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Physics"},{"key":"454_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11576","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1203882109","volume":"109","author":"X Lu","year":"2012","unstructured":"Lu, X., Bengtsson, L., & Holme, P. (2012). Predictability of population displacement after the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 11576\u201311581.","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"454_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6249","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-06508-1","volume":"7","author":"W Geng","year":"2017","unstructured":"Geng, W., & Yang, G. (2017). Partial correlation between spatial and temporal regularities of human mobility. Scientific Reports, 7, 6249.","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"454_CR49","first-page":"0147299","volume":"11","author":"Q Wang","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wang, Q., & Taylor, J. E. (2016). Patterns and limitations of urban human mobility resilience under the influence of multiple types of natural disaster. PLOS ONE, 11, 0147299.","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"454_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heiler, G., Reisch, T., Hurt, J., Forghani, M., Omani, A., Hanbury, A., & Karimipour, F. (2020). Country-wide mobility changes observed using mobile phone data during COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020 IEEE international conference on big data (Big Data), (pp. 3123\u20133132).","DOI":"10.1109\/BigData50022.2020.9378374"},{"key":"454_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1093\/poq\/nfac042","volume":"86","author":"F Kalleitner","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kalleitner, F., Schiestl, D. W., & Heiler, G. (2022). Varieties of mobility measures: Comparing survey and mobile phone data during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public Opinion Quarterly, 86, 913\u2013931.","journal-title":"Public Opinion Quarterly"},{"key":"454_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001083","volume":"8","author":"L Bengtsson","year":"2011","unstructured":"Bengtsson, L., Lu, X., Thorson, A., Garfield, R., & Schreeb, J. (2011). Improved response to disasters and outbreaks by tracking population movements with mobile phone network data: A post-earthquake geospatial study in Haiti. PLOS Medicine, 8, 1\u20139.","journal-title":"PLOS Medicine"},{"key":"454_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Xu, B., Ma, Y., & Chung, T. (2016). Real-time monitoring and forecast of active population density using mobile phone data. In Big data technology and applications, (vol. 590, pp. 116\u2013129). Springer, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-0457-5_12"},{"key":"454_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.1","volume":"4","author":"CT Lloyd","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lloyd, C. T., Sorichetta, A., & Tatem, A. J. (2017). High resolution global gridded data for use in population studies. Scientific Data, 4, 1\u201317.","journal-title":"Scientific Data"},{"key":"454_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11258","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-15512-z","volume":"12","author":"T Aoki","year":"2022","unstructured":"Aoki, T., Fujishima, S., & Fujiwara, N. (2022). Urban spatial structures from human flow by Hodge-Kodaira decomposition. Scientific Reports, 12, 11258.","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"454_CR56","first-page":"419","volume":"51","author":"T Aoki","year":"2024","unstructured":"Aoki, T., Fujishima, S., & Fujiwara, N. (2024). Identifying sinks and sources of human flows: A new approach to characterizing urban structures. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 51, 419\u2013437.","journal-title":"Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science"},{"key":"454_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3895","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11841-2","volume":"10","author":"M Mazzoli","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mazzoli, M., Molas, A., Bassolas, A., Lenormand, M., Colet, P., & Ramasco, J. J. (2019). Field theory for recurrent mobility. Nature Communications, 10, 3895.","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"454_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9918","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-13789-8","volume":"12","author":"Y Shida","year":"2022","unstructured":"Shida, Y., Ozaki, J., Takayasu, H., & Takayasu, M. (2022). Potential fields and fluctuation-dissipation relations derived from human flow in urban areas modeled by a network of electric circuits. Scientific Reports, 12, 9918.","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"454_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2024.129571","volume":"637","author":"H Yang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yang, H., Lv, S., Guo, B., Dai, J., & Wang, P. (2024). Uncovering spatiotemporal human mobility patterns in urban agglomerations: A mobility field based approach. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 637, Article 129571.","journal-title":"Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications"},{"key":"454_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.2307\/1969552","volume":"50","author":"K Kodaira","year":"1949","unstructured":"Kodaira, K. (1949). Harmonic fields in Riemannian manifolds (Generalized potential theory). Annals of Mathematics, 50, 587\u2013665.","journal-title":"Annals of Mathematics"},{"key":"454_CR61","series-title":"Cambridge Mathematical Library","volume-title":"The Theory and Applications of Harmonic Integrals","author":"WVD Hodge","year":"1989","unstructured":"Hodge, W. V. D. (1989). The Theory and Applications of Harmonic Integrals. Cambridge Mathematical LibraryCambridge: Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"454_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s10107-010-0419-x","volume":"127","author":"X Jiang","year":"2011","unstructured":"Jiang, X., Lim, L.-H., Yao, Y., & Ye, Y. (2011). Statistical ranking and combinatorial Hodge theory. Mathematical Programming, 127, 203\u2013244.","journal-title":"Mathematical Programming"},{"key":"454_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chaos.2025.116114","volume":"194","author":"R Benassai-Dalmau","year":"2025","unstructured":"Benassai-Dalmau, R., Borge-Holthoefer, J., & Sol\u00e9-Ribalta, A. (2025). Exploring pedestrian permeability in urban sidewalk networks. Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, 194, Article 116114.","journal-title":"Chaos, Solitons & Fractals"},{"key":"454_CR64","unstructured":"LocationMind Inc. Accessed 20 November 2024. https:\/\/locationmind.com\/"},{"key":"454_CR65","unstructured":"Standard grid square and grid square code used for the statistics. Accessed 20 November 2024. https:\/\/www.stat.go.jp\/english\/data\/mesh\/02.html"},{"key":"454_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2010.10.033","volume":"390","author":"JB Sun","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sun, J. B., Yuan, J., Wang, Y., Si, H. B., & Shan, X. M. (2011). Exploring space-time structure of human mobility in urban space. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 390, 929\u2013942.","journal-title":"Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications"},{"key":"454_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2012.11.040","volume":"392","author":"BC Cs\u00e1ji","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cs\u00e1ji, B. C., Browet, A., Traag, V. A., Delvenne, J.-C., Huens, E., Van Dooren, P., Smoreda, Z., & Blondel, V. D. (2013). Exploring the mobility of mobile phone users. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 392, 1459\u20131473.","journal-title":"Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications"},{"key":"454_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"04021070","DOI":"10.1061\/JTEPBS.0000580","volume":"147","author":"H Sun","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sun, H., Chen, Y., Lai, J., Wang, Y., & Liu, X. (2021). Identifying tourists and locals by k-means clustering method from mobile phone signaling data. Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems, 147, 04021070.","journal-title":"Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems"},{"key":"454_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.-H., Goh, S., Lee, K., & Choi, M. Y. (2021). Spatiotemporal distributions of population in Seoul: joint influence of ridership and accessibility of the subway system. EPJ Data Science, 41.","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-021-00298-3"},{"key":"454_CR70","unstructured":"Grid square statistics compiled by the Statistics Bureau of Japan. https:\/\/www.stat.go.jp\/data\/mesh\/index.html. Accessed 22 Oct 2025"},{"key":"454_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0276741","volume":"17","author":"K Tsuboi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tsuboi, K., Fujiwara, N., & Itoh, R. (2022). Influence of trip distance and population density on intra-city mobility patterns in Tokyo during COVID-19 pandemic. PLOS ONE, 17, 1\u201322.","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"454_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1038\/s42949-022-00066-w","volume":"2","author":"H Kato","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kato, H., & Takizawa, A. (2022). Human mobility and infection from COVID-19 in the Osaka metropolitan area. NPJ Urban Sustainability, 2, 20.","journal-title":"NPJ Urban Sustainability"},{"key":"454_CR73","unstructured":"LocationMind contact form. Accessed 20 November 2024. https:\/\/locationmind.com\/#contact-us"}],"container-title":["Journal of Computational Social Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s42001-025-00454-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s42001-025-00454-z","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s42001-025-00454-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T04:35:41Z","timestamp":1779856541000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s42001-025-00454-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["454"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42001-025-00454-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["2432-2717","2432-2725"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2432-2717","type":"print"},{"value":"2432-2725","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"30 June 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 December 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors report no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"28"}}