{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T17:28:33Z","timestamp":1767374913598,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762300800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762300800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020475","name":"Directorate for STEM Education","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2309564","2506783"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2309564","2506783"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020475","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000076","name":"Directorate for Biological Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2417510"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2417510"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000076","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["SN COMPUT. SCI."],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This paper is an extended version of the best paper from the HUCAPP 2025 conference. The abstract nature of Artificial Intelligence (AI) concepts presents an educational challenge. This paper compares an immersive extended reality (XR) environment to a traditional desktop setup for teaching Neural Networks and Handwritten Digit Recognition. We analyzed differences in student engagement, user experience, and learning outcomes between the two modalities. In this comparative study, 56 participants learned about AI concepts using either an XR headset (Meta Quest 3) or a desktop computer. We collected data on usability, satisfaction, immersion, and likelihood to recommend using the System Usability Scale (SUS), User Satisfaction Questionnaire (USQ), Immersion Presence Questionnaire (IPQ), and Net Promoter Score (NPS) questionnaires. Learning outcomes were assessed via multiple-choice questions administered during the lesson. The XR group reported significantly higher engagement, immersion, satisfaction, and likelihood to recommend the system. However, this increased engagement did not translate to superior learning outcomes; performance on in-lesson questions was comparable between the two groups. XR users also identified challenges, including physical discomfort and unfamiliarity with the technology. The findings suggest that XR can increase student motivation in AI education, but this does not automatically lead to better learning performance. Usability challenges and the novelty of the technology may hinder knowledge absorption. Future work should focus on scaffolding strategies to mitigate these issues and better leverage XR\u2019s educational potential by personalizing the learning experience.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s42979-025-04495-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T08:15:30Z","timestamp":1762330530000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Evaluating eXtended Reality (XR) and Desktop Modalities for AI Education"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5648-9966","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel A.","family":"Feijoo-Garcia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0958-0943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiqun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6612-0563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiyin","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6117-7502","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandra J.","family":"Magana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5293-2112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bedrich","family":"Benes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8767-8724","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Voicu","family":"Popescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"4495_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1408","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12687","volume":"38","author":"ST Pham","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pham ST, Sampson PM. The development of artificial intelligence in education: A review in context. J Comput Assist Learn. 2022;38(5):1408\u201321.","journal-title":"J Comput Assist Learn"},{"key":"4495_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim S-W. Change in attitude toward artificial intelligence through experiential learning in artificial intelligence education. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inform Technol 13(5), pp. 1953\u20131959 (2023).","DOI":"10.18517\/ijaseit.13.5.19039"},{"key":"4495_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Feij\u00b4oo-Garc\u0131a MA, Ram\u00b4\u0131rez-Ar\u00b4evalo HH, Feij\u00b4oo-Garc\u00b4\u0131a PG. Collaborative strategy for software engineering courses at a south american university. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Computer Supported Education - Volume 1: CSEDU, pp. 266\u2013273 (2021). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5220\/0010460602660273","DOI":"10.5220\/0010460602660273"},{"key":"4495_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75264","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2988510","volume":"8","author":"L Chen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chen L, Chen P, Lin Z. Artificial intelligence in education: A review. Ieee Access. 2020;8:75264\u201378.","journal-title":"Ieee Access"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.57568\/iulres.v1i1.43","volume":"1","author":"F Pedr\u00b4o","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pedr\u00b4o F. Applications of artificial intelligence to higher education: possibilities, evidence, and challenges. IUL Res. 2020;1(1):61\u201376.","journal-title":"IUL Res"},{"issue":"24","key":"4495_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13776","DOI":"10.3390\/su132413776","volume":"13","author":"X Guo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Guo X, Guo Y, Liu Y. The development of extended reality in education: inspiration from the research literature. Sustainability. 2021;13(24):13776. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su132413776.","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"3","key":"4495_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11030366","volume":"11","author":"G Zwolin\u00b4ski","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zwolin\u00b4ski G, Kamin\u00b4ska D, Laska-Le\u00b4sniewicz A, Haamer RE, Vairinhos M, Raposo R, Urem F, Reisinho P. Extended reality in education and training: case studies in management education. Electronics. 2022;11(3):336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/electronics11030366.","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"issue":"4","key":"4495_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3507","DOI":"10.3390\/su15043507","volume":"15","author":"G Rangel-de L\u00b4azaro","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rangel-de L\u00b4azaro G, Duart JM. You can handle, you can teach it: systematic review on the use of extended reality and artificial intelligence technologies for online higher education. Sustainability. 2023;15(4):3507. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su15043507.","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"21","key":"4495_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11814","DOI":"10.3390\/su132111814","volume":"13","author":"V Kuleto","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kuleto V, Ili\u00b4c P, Stanescu M, Rankovi\u00b4c M, Popovi\u00b4c S\u02c7evi\u00b4c M, P\u02d8aun N, Teodorescu D. Extended reality in higher education, a responsible innovation approach for generation Y and generation Z. Sustainability. 2021;13(21):11814. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su132111814.","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"4495_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gu Y, Feijoo-Garcia MA, Zhang Y, Magana AJ, Benes B, Popescu V. An XR environment for AI education: Design and first implementation. In: 2024 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW), pp. 157\u2013162 (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/VRW62533.2024.00032. IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/VRW62533.2024.00032"},{"issue":"9","key":"4495_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.3390\/info15090515","volume":"15","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang Y, Feijoo-Garcia MA, Gu Y, Popescu V, Benes B, Magana AJ. Virtual and augmented reality in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education: an umbrella review. Information. 2024;15(9):515. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info15090515","journal-title":"Information"},{"issue":"3","key":"4495_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.70725\/002527odhhrp","volume":"29","author":"KW Kosko","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kosko KW, Ferdig RE, Roche L. Conceptualizing a shared definition and future directions for extended reality (XR) in teacher education. J Technol Teacher Educ. 2021;29(3):257\u201377.","journal-title":"J Technol Teacher Educ"},{"key":"4495_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kharvari F, Kaiser LE. Impact of extended reality on architectural education and the design process. Automation in Construction 141, 104393 (2022) https: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.autcon.2022.104393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2022.104393"},{"key":"4495_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2024.3358859","volume":"17","author":"SK Jagatheesaperumal","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jagatheesaperumal SK, Ahmad K, Al-Fuqaha A, Qadir J. Advancing education through extended reality and internet of everything enabled meta-verses: Applications, challenges, and open issues. IEEE Trans Learn Technol. 2024;17:1120\u201339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TLT.2024.3358859","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Learn Technol"},{"key":"4495_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ferreira JMM, Qureshi ZI. Use of XR technologies to bridge the gap between higher education and continuing education. In: 2020 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference, pp. 913\u2013918 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/EDUCON45650.2020.9125346","DOI":"10.1109\/EDUCON45650.2020.9125346"},{"issue":"4","key":"4495_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.33225\/jbse\/23.22.568","volume":"22","author":"Y-C Chiang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chiang Y-C, Liu S-C. The effects of extended reality technologies in STEM education on students\u2019 learning response and performance. J Baltic Sci Educ. 2023;22(4):568\u201378.","journal-title":"J Baltic Sci Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"4495_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.neuropsych.21030067","volume":"33","author":"W L\u00b4opez-Ojeda","year":"2021","unstructured":"L\u00b4opez-Ojeda W, Hurley RA. Extended-reality technologies: an overview of emerging applications in medical education and clinical care. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosciences. 2021;33(3):4\u2013177. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1176\/appi.neuropsych.21030067","journal-title":"J Neu- Ropsychiatry Clin Neurosciences"},{"key":"4495_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Koukopoulos D, Dafiotis P, Sylaiou S, Koukoulis K, Fidas C. Xr technolo gies for self-regulated student exhibitions in art education: Survey and first design considerations. In: 2022 International Conference on Interactive Media, Smart Systems and Emerging Technologies, pp. 1\u20138 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IMET54801.2022.9929450","DOI":"10.1109\/IMET54801.2022.9929450"},{"key":"4495_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-77599-5_41","volume-title":"Virtual, augmented and mixed reality","author":"P Guilbaud","year":"2021","unstructured":"Guilbaud P, Guilbaud TC, Jennings D. Extended reality, pedagogy, and career readiness: A review of literature. In: Chen JYC, Fragomeni G, editors. Virtual, augmented and mixed reality. Cham: Springer; 2021. pp. 595\u2013613."},{"key":"4495_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Idrees A, Morton M, Dabrowski G. Advancing extended reality teaching and learning opportunities across the disciplines in higher education. In: 2022 8th International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network, pp. 1\u20138 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.23919\/iLRN55037.2022.9815897","DOI":"10.23919\/iLRN55037.2022.9815897"},{"issue":"2","key":"4495_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.3390\/computers13020050","volume":"13","author":"JM Fern\u00b4andez-Batanero","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fern\u00b4andez-Batanero JM, Montenegro-Rueda M, Fern\u00b4andez-Cerero J, L\u00b4opez- Meneses E. Extended reality as an educational resource in the primary school classroom: an interview of drawbacks and opportunities. Computers. 2024;13(2):50. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/computers13020050.","journal-title":"Computers"},{"issue":"21","key":"4495_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3547","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11213547","volume":"11","author":"M Meccawy","year":"2022","unstructured":"Meccawy M. Creating an immersive XR learning experience: A roadmap for educators. Electronics. 2022;11(21):3547. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/electronics11213547.","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"4495_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obeidallah R, Ahmad AA, Qutishat D. Challenges of extended reality technology in higher education: A review. Int J Emerg Technol Learn 2023;18(14):39\u201350","DOI":"10.3991\/ijet.v18i14.39871"},{"key":"4495_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grier RA, Bangor A, Kortum P, Peres SC. The system usability scale: Beyond standard usability testing. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, vol. 57, pp. 187\u2013191 (2013). SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA.","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931213571042"},{"key":"4495_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romeike R. The role of computer science education for understanding and shaping the digital society. In: Sustainable ICT, Education and Learning: IFIP WG 3.4 International Conference, SUZA 2019, Zanzibar, Tanzania, April 25\u201327, 2019, Revised Selected Papers 1, pp. 167\u2013176 (2019). Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-28764-1_19"},{"issue":"7","key":"4495_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1589","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071589","volume":"17","author":"J-A Gil-G\u00b4omez","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gil-G\u00b4omez J-A, Manzano-Hern\u00b4andez P, Albiol-P\u00b4erez S, Aula-Valero C, Gil- G\u00b4omez H, Lozano-Quilis J-A. Useq: a short questionnaire for satisfaction evaluation of virtual rehabilitation systems. Sensors. 2017;17(7):1589.","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"4495_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwind V, Knierim P, Haas N, Henze N. Using presence questionnaires in virtual reality. In: Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1\u201312 (2019).","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300590"},{"issue":"4","key":"4495_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.3390\/su14042011","volume":"14","author":"A Baquero","year":"2022","unstructured":"Baquero A. Net promoter score (NPS) and customer satisfaction: relationship and efficient management. Sustainability. 2022;14(4):2011.","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"4495_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kara A, Mintu-Wimsatt A, Spillan JE. An application of the net promoter score in higher education. J  Market  Higher Edu 2021;34(2):478\u2013501.","DOI":"10.1080\/08841241.2021.2018088"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"4495_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1080\/10627197.2010.530551","volume":"15","author":"NJ Brown","year":"2010","unstructured":"Brown NJ, Furtak EM, Timms M, Nagashima SO, Wilson M. The evidence-based reasoning framework: assessing scientific reasoning. Educational Assess. 2010;15(3\u20134):123\u201341.","journal-title":"Educational Assess"},{"issue":"7","key":"4495_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2633","DOI":"10.3390\/su16072633","volume":"16","author":"MA Feijoo-Garcia","year":"2024","unstructured":"Feijoo-Garcia MA, Holstrom MS, Magana AJ, Newell BA. Simulation-based learning and argumentation to promote informed design decision-making processes within a first-year engineering technology course. Sustainability. 2024;16(7):2633. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su16072633","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"4495_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Feijoo-Garcia MA, Zhang Y, Gu Y, Magana AJ, Benes B, Popescu V. Exploring extended reality (XR) in teaching AI: A comparative study of XR and desktop environments. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications - HUCAPP, pp. 472\u2013482 (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5220\/0013141000003912","DOI":"10.5220\/0013141000003912"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-024-09869-y","volume":"36","author":"A Skulmowski","year":"2024","unstructured":"Skulmowski A. Learning by doing or doing without learning? The potentials and challenges of activity-based learning. Educational Psychol Rev. 2024;36(1):28.","journal-title":"Educational Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"13","key":"4495_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2832","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12132832","volume":"12","author":"A Marougkas","year":"2023","unstructured":"Marougkas A, Troussas C, Krouska A, Sgouropoulou C. Virtual reality in education: a review of learning theories, approaches and methodologies for the last decade. Electronics. 2023;12(13):2832.","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"issue":"5","key":"4495_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1080\/00131857.2013.879694","volume":"47","author":"SA Stolz","year":"2015","unstructured":"Stolz SA. Embodied learning. Educational Philos Theory. 2015;47(5):474\u201387.","journal-title":"Educational Philos Theory"},{"key":"4495_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429329098","volume-title":"Foundations of embodied learning: A paradigm for education","author":"MJ Nathan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nathan MJ. Foundations of embodied learning: A paradigm for education. New York: Routledge; 2021."},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.59.103006.093639","volume":"59","author":"LW Barsalou","year":"2008","unstructured":"Barsalou LW. Grounded cognition. Annu Rev Psychol. 2008;59(1):617\u201345.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s41235-016-0046-z","volume":"2","author":"JC Hayes","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hayes JC, Kraemer DJ. Grounded Understanding of abstract concepts: the case of stem learning. Cogn Research: Principles Implications. 2017;2(1):7.","journal-title":"Cogn Research: Principles Implications"},{"issue":"4","key":"4495_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-015-0842-3","volume":"23","author":"A Martin","year":"2016","unstructured":"Martin A. Grapes\u2014grounding representations in action, perception, and emotion systems: how object properties and categories are represented in the human brain. Psychon Bull Rev. 2016;23(4):979\u201390.","journal-title":"Psychon Bull Rev"},{"issue":"6","key":"4495_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797616641941","volume":"27","author":"RA Mason","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mason RA, Just MA. Neural representations of physics concepts. Psychological Sci. 2016;27(6):904\u201313.","journal-title":"Psycholog- Ical Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"4495_CR41","first-page":"155","volume":"7","author":"D Gentner","year":"1983","unstructured":"Gentner D. Structure-mapping: A theoretical framework for analogy. Cogn Sci. 1983;7(2):155\u201370.","journal-title":"Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1037\/a0034008","volume":"106","author":"MC Johnson-Glenberg","year":"2014","unstructured":"Johnson-Glenberg MC, Birchfield DA, Tolentino L, Koziupa T. Collaborative embodied learning in mixed reality motion-capture environments: two science studies. J Educ Psychol. 2014;106(1):86.","journal-title":"J Educ Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR43","first-page":"1","volume":"11","author":"V Trowler","year":"2010","unstructured":"Trowler V. Student engagement literature review. High Educ Acad. 2010;11(1):1\u201315.","journal-title":"High Educ Acad"},{"issue":"14","key":"4495_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18789","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12524-2","volume":"29","author":"JT Wong","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wong JT, Chen E, Au-Yeung N, Lerner BS, Richland LE. Fostering engaging online learning experiences: investigating situational interest and mind-wandering as mediators through learning experience design. Educ Inform Technol. 2024;29(14):18789\u2013815.","journal-title":"Educ Inform Technol"},{"issue":"18","key":"4495_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3350","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15183350","volume":"15","author":"J Zhao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhao J, Lee M, Li X. Embodied cognition and built heritage education: A case study of macau\u2019s historical architecture. Buildings. 2025;15(18):3350.","journal-title":"Buildings"},{"key":"4495_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laarni J, Ravaja N, Saari T, B\u00a8ocking S, Hartmann T, Schramm H. Ways to measure spatial presence: Review and future directions. Immersed in media: Telepresence theory, measurement & technology, 139\u2013185 (2015).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10190-3_8"},{"key":"4495_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aros M, Tyger CL, Chaparro BS. Unraveling the meta quest 3: An out-of-box experience of the future of mixed reality headsets. In: International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, pp. 3\u20138 (2024). Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-61950-2_1"},{"key":"4495_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivera D. Visualizing machine learning in 3D. In: Proceedings of the 28th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, pp. 1\u20132 (2022).","DOI":"10.1145\/3562939.3565688"},{"key":"4495_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrivastava A, Jaggi I, Gupta S, Gupta D. Handwritten digit recognition using machine learning: A review. In: 2019 2nd International Conference on Power Energy, Environment and Intelligent Control (PEEIC), pp. 322\u2013326 (2019). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/PEEIC47157.2019.8976601"},{"key":"4495_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ananthi S, Lokesh B, Chandran S, Sakthi S. Framework for platform independent machine learning (ML) model execution. In: 2024 2nd International Conference on Intelligent Data Communication Technologies and Internet of Things (IDCIoT), pp. 728\u2013732 (2024). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/IDCIoT59759.2024.10467931"},{"issue":"9","key":"4495_CR51","first-page":"1","volume":"56","author":"A Alhakamy","year":"2024","unstructured":"Alhakamy A. Extended reality (XR) toward Building immersive solutions: the key to unlocking industry 4.0. ACM-CSUR. 2024;56(9):1\u201338.","journal-title":"ACM-CSUR"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.5334\/joc.72","volume":"2","author":"M Brysbaert","year":"2019","unstructured":"Brysbaert M. How many participants do we have to include in properly powered experiments? A tutorial of power analysis with reference tables. J Cognition. 2019;2(1):16.","journal-title":"J Cognition"},{"key":"4495_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wright DB. Research methods for education with technology: Four concerns, examples, and recommendations. In: Frontiers in Education, vol. 4, p. 147 (2019). Frontiers Media SA.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2019.00147"},{"key":"4495_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-28316-6","volume-title":"An introduction to statistics with python. With applications in the life sciences","author":"T Haslwanter","year":"2016","unstructured":"Haslwanter T. An introduction to statistics with python. With applications in the life sciences. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2016."},{"key":"4495_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203771587","volume-title":"Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences","author":"J Cohen","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York: Routledge; 2013."},{"issue":"6","key":"4495_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691612463078","volume":"7","author":"E-J Wagenmakers","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wagenmakers E-J, Wetzels R, Borsboom D, Maas HL, Kievit RA. An agenda for purely confirmatory research. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2012;7(6):632\u20138.","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"4495_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1177\/08903344231195625","volume":"39","author":"ZT Haile","year":"2023","unstructured":"Haile ZT. Power analysis and exploratory research. J Hum Lactation. 2023;39(4):579\u201383.","journal-title":"J Hum Lactation"},{"issue":"6","key":"4495_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2012.2211477","volume":"29","author":"L Deng","year":"2012","unstructured":"Deng L. The MNIST database of handwritten digit images for machine learning research [best of the web]. IEEE Signal Process Mag. 2012;29(6):141\u20132.","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process Mag"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33267","DOI":"10.1525\/collabra.33267","volume":"8","author":"D Lakens","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lakens D. Sample size justification. Collabra: Psychol. 2022;8(1):33267.","journal-title":"Collabra: Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"4495_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09586-2","volume":"33","author":"G Makransky","year":"2021","unstructured":"Makransky G, Petersen GB. The cognitive affective model of immersive learn- Ing (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychol Rev. 2021;33(3):937\u201358.","journal-title":"Educational Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"2","key":"4495_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.11113\/humentech.v1n2.27","volume":"1","author":"A Alnagrat","year":"2022","unstructured":"Alnagrat A, Ismail RC, Idrus SZS, Alfaqi RMA. A review of extended reality (XR) technologies in the future of human education: current trend and future opportunity. J Hum Centered Technol. 2022;1(2):81\u201396.","journal-title":"J Hum Centered Technol"},{"issue":"12","key":"4495_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2931","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings13122931","volume":"13","author":"J Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang J, Ma Q, Wei X. The application of extended reality technology in architectural design education: a review. Buildings. 2023;13(12):2931.","journal-title":"Buildings"},{"key":"4495_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137053","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3338176","volume":"11","author":"M Hmoud","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hmoud M, Swaity H, Karram O, Shibli H, Swaity S, Daher W. High school students\u2019 engagement in biology in the context of XR technology. IEEE Access. 2023;11:137053\u201366.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"4495_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Upadhyay B, Madathil C, Hegde K, Anderson S, Wooldridge D, Presley E, Perez D, Reid L. B.: Barriers toward the implementation of extended reality (XR) technologies to support education and training in workforce development programs. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, vol. 68, pp. 265\u2013269 (2024). SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA.","DOI":"10.1177\/10711813241275080"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12482","volume":"37","author":"J Parong","year":"2021","unstructured":"Parong J, Mayer RE. Cognitive and affective processes for learning science in immersive virtual reality. J Comput Assist Learn. 2021;37(1):226\u201341.","journal-title":"J Comput Assist Learn"},{"issue":"5","key":"4495_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1108\/EL-11-2022-0257","volume":"41","author":"W Dong","year":"2023","unstructured":"Dong W, Zhou M, Zhou M, Jiang B, Lu J. An overview of applications and trends in the use of extended reality for teaching effectiveness: an umbrella review based on 20 meta-analysis studies. Electron Libr. 2023;41(5):557\u201377.","journal-title":"Electron Libr"},{"issue":"6","key":"4495_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2034","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13028","volume":"51","author":"R Liu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Liu R, Wang L, Lei J, Wang Q, Ren Y. Effects of an immersive virtual reality-based classroom on students\u2019 learning performance in science lessons. Br J Edu Technol. 2020;51(6):2034\u201349.","journal-title":"Br J Edu Technol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4495_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s12008-022-01092-9","volume":"17","author":"L Bautista","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bautista L, Maradei F, Pedraza G. Strategies to reduce visual attention changes while learning and training in extended reality environments. International J Interact Des Manuf (IJIDeM). 2023;17(1):17\u201343.","journal-title":"Interna- Tional J Interact Des Manuf (IJIDeM)"},{"issue":"2","key":"4495_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1002\/cae.22462","volume":"30","author":"Y Lin","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lin Y, Wang S, Lan Y. The study of virtual reality adaptive learning method based on learning style model. Comput Appl Eng Educ. 2022;30(2):396\u2013414.","journal-title":"Comput Appl Eng Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"4495_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1177\/17456916211008407","volume":"17","author":"CJ Hopwood","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hopwood CJ, Bleidorn W, Wright AG. Connecting theory to methods in longitudinal research. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2022;17(3):884\u201394.","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"key":"4495_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721933","DOI":"10.3389\/frvir.2021.721933","volume":"2","author":"D Reiners","year":"2021","unstructured":"Reiners D, Davahli MR, Karwowski W, Cruz-Neira C. The combination of artificial intelligence and extended reality: A systematic review. Front Virtual Real. 2021;2:721933.","journal-title":"Front Virtual Real"}],"container-title":["SN Computer Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s42979-025-04495-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s42979-025-04495-z\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s42979-025-04495-z.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T10:03:40Z","timestamp":1762337020000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s42979-025-04495-z"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4495"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42979-025-04495-z","relation":{},"ISSN":["2661-8907"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2661-8907"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 July 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of Interest"}},{"value":"This study has been approved by Purdue University\u2019s Institutional Review Board under IRB-2024-57. A four-page consent form was designed to inform participants about the purpose, duration, confidentiality, benefits, risks, and other pertinent information of the study. If they chose to participate, participants first signed and dated the consent form. Participants could also withdraw at any time.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"The authors declare that this work is original and not considered to be published in any other publication media.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for Publication"}}],"article-number":"943"}}