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SCI."],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>In the near future, transportation systems will include both autonomous vehicles and human-operated vehicles sharing the same traffic conditions. Human drivers will have difficulty predicting the actions of autonomous vehicles and the latter will face challenges due to complex decision-making algorithms and dynamic environments. The lack of standardized interaction protocols between autonomous vehicles and human drivers further complicates safe decision-making. This paper proposes an AI-based advisory framework to enhance human driving skills in mixed autonomy traffic and improve autonomous vehicles in a Human\u2013AI teaming fashion. Our framework is composed of both a centralized component and a decentralized component. The centralized component primarily identifies driving style and trajectory parameters that impact traffic efficiency across large-scale traffic networks shared by human drivers and autonomous vehicles. At the local level, however, our proposed framework features a decentralized, agent-based strategy to enable effective coordination between human and autonomous vehicles\u2014especially at complex intersections. An initial prototype is modeled and implemented in a desktop virtual reality environment for testing and training.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s42979-025-04580-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T10:22:20Z","timestamp":1768904540000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Design of an AI-Based Decision-Support Framework to Enhance Road Safety in Varying Autonomy Conditions Using Virtual Reality"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6741-4337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elmira","family":"Zohrevandi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3780-0389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierangelo","family":"Dell\u2019acqua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5686-6124","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Costantini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7052-1114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"Gullo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"4580_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2024.05.001","author":"A Adavikottu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Adavikottu A, Velaga N. 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