{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T05:04:13Z","timestamp":1769749453866,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]],"date-time":"2024-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732147200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]],"date-time":"2024-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732147200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003484","name":"Heinrich-Heine-Universit\u00e4t D\u00fcsseldorf","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003484","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI Ethics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Given the enormous number of posts, major digital social networks, such as Facebook, must rely on artificial intelligence (AI) systems to regulate hate speech. This article explores the risks for free speech that the automated deletion of posts entails and discusses how AI systems can be subjected to human control. In a first step, the article examines the relevance of the individual right to freedom of expression for privately operated Internet platforms. It then highlights the specific risks that arise when AI systems are entrusted with the task of identifying and removing hate speech. The recently passed EU AI Act represents the most ambitious attempt to date to regulate high-risk AI applications. The article examines whether and, if so, to what extent the various forms of human oversight mentioned in the EU AI Act are feasible in the area of hate speech regulation. Three core theses are put forward: First, the deletion of hate speech by AI systems constitutes a high-risk application that requires an extension of the regulatory scope of the EU AI Act. Second, ex-post monitoring is the only feasible kind of human supervision but fails to guarantee full protection of the individual right to freedom of expression. Third, despite this shortcoming, the implementing of ex-post monitoring is necessary and legitimate to curb hate speech on digital social networks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-024-00610-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]],"date-time":"2024-11-21T12:45:43Z","timestamp":1732193143000},"page":"2943-2953","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["AI-based removal of hate speech from digital social networks: chances and risks for freedom of expression"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3096-1649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frank","family":"Dietrich","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"610_CR1","unstructured":"Frenkel, S., Conger, K.: Hate speech\u2019s rise on Twitter is unprecedented, researchers find. New York Times. (2022). https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2022\/12\/02\/technology\/twitter-hate-speech.html# Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR2","unstructured":"Twitter, D.S.A.: transparency report (August 28th to October 20th 2023). (2024). https:\/\/transparency.twitter.com\/dsa-transparency-report.html Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR3","first-page":"2001","volume":"119","author":"T Wu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wu, T.: Will artificial intelligence eat the law? The rise of hybrid social-ordering systems. Colum L Rev. 119, 2001\u20132028 (2019). https:\/\/columbialawreview.org\/content\/will-artificial-intelligence-eat-the-law-the-rise-of-hybrid-social-ordering-systems\/","journal-title":"Colum L Rev."},{"key":"610_CR4","unstructured":"Facebook NetzDG transparency report: (2022). https:\/\/about.fb.com\/de\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/10\/2022\/07\/Facebook-NetzDG-Transparency-Report-July-2022.pdf Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR5","unstructured":"Transcript of Mark Zuckerberg\u2019s Senate hearing: (2018). https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-switch\/wp\/2018\/04\/10\/transcript-of-mark-zuckerbergs-senate-hearing\/ Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR6","volume-title":"Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry","author":"F Schauer","year":"1984","unstructured":"Schauer, F.: Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1984)"},{"key":"610_CR7","volume-title":"Free Speech and its Relation to self-government","author":"A Meiklejohn","year":"1948","unstructured":"Meiklejohn, A.: Free Speech and its Relation to self-government. Harper & Brothers, New York (1948)"},{"key":"610_CR8","volume-title":"Ein Neuer Strukturwandel Der \u00d6ffentlichkeit Und die Deliberative Politik","author":"J Habermas","year":"2022","unstructured":"Habermas, J.: Ein Neuer Strukturwandel Der \u00d6ffentlichkeit Und die Deliberative Politik. Suhrkamp, Berlin (2022)"},{"key":"610_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/s12119-020-09790-w","volume":"20","author":"TD Oliva","year":"2020","unstructured":"Oliva, T.D.: Content moderation technologies: Applying human right standards to protect freedom of expression. Hum. Rights Law Rev. 20, 607\u2013640 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12119-020-09790-w","journal-title":"Hum. Rights Law Rev."},{"key":"610_CR10","unstructured":"WhatsApp: How to create a community. (2024). https:\/\/faq.whatsapp.com\/438859978317289\/?helpref=faq_content%26cms_platform=web Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR11","unstructured":"Telegram: Groups and channels. (2024). https:\/\/telegram.org\/faq?setln=en#groups-and-channels Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198868651.001.0001","volume-title":"Freedom of Expression as self-restraint","author":"MH Kramer","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kramer, M.H.: Freedom of Expression as self-restraint. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2021)"},{"key":"610_CR13","first-page":"159","volume":"41","author":"MC Shefa","year":"2018","unstructured":"Shefa, M.C.: First amendment 2.0: revisiting Marsh and the quasi-public forum in the age of social media. U Haw L Rev. 41, 159\u2013188 (2018)","journal-title":"U Haw L Rev."},{"key":"610_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1080\/21689725.2020.1742760","volume":"54","author":"PL Morris","year":"2020","unstructured":"Morris, P.L., Sarapin, S.H.: You can\u2019t block me: When social media spaces are public forums. First Amendment Stud. 54, 52\u201370 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21689725.2020.1742760","journal-title":"First Amendment Stud."},{"key":"610_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/harvard.9780674065086","volume-title":"The harm in hate Speech","author":"J Waldron","year":"2012","unstructured":"Waldron, J.: The harm in hate Speech. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (2012)"},{"key":"610_CR16","first-page":"293","volume":"22","author":"R Langton","year":"1993","unstructured":"Langton, R.: Speech acts and unspeakable acts. Phil Pub Aff. 22, 293\u2013330 (1993)","journal-title":"Phil Pub Aff"},{"key":"610_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1353\/cjp.0.0050","volume":"39","author":"I Maitra","year":"2009","unstructured":"Maitra, I.: Silencing speech. Can. J. Philos. 39, 309\u2013338 (2009)","journal-title":"Can. J. Philos."},{"key":"610_CR18","unstructured":"Howard, J.W.: Freedom of speech. In: Zalta, E. N., Nodelman, U. (eds.) Staenford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2024 Edition). (2024). https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/freedom-speech\/ Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198759027.001.0001","volume-title":"Hate Speech and Democratic Citizenship","author":"E Heinze","year":"2016","unstructured":"Heinze, E.: Hate Speech and Democratic Citizenship. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2016)"},{"key":"610_CR20","unstructured":"Ruane, K.A.: Freedom of speech and press: Exceptions to the first amendment. Library of Congress. (2014). https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc462149\/#partners Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951719897945","volume":"7","author":"R Gorwa","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gorwa, R., Binns, R., Katzenbach, C.: Algorithmic content moderation: technical and political challenges in the automation of platform governance. Big Data Soc. 7, 1\u201315 (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2053951719897945","journal-title":"Big Data Soc."},{"key":"610_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fortuna, P., Nunes, S.: A survey on automatic detection of hate speech in text. ACM Comput. Surv. 51, Article 85 ((2018). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3232676","DOI":"10.1145\/3232676"},{"key":"610_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Carstens, J.A.: D. Friess AI within online discussions: Rational, civil, privileged? Ethical considerations on the interference of AI in online discourse. Minds Mach. online first https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-024-09658-0 (2024)","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-024-09658-0"},{"key":"610_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MacAvaney, S., Yao, H.-R., Yang, E., Russell, K., Goharian, N., Frieder, O.: Hate speech detection: Challenges and solutions. PLOS ONE. 14 (2019). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0221152","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221152"},{"key":"610_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"U.S. President\u2019s executive order on the: safe, secure, and trustworthy development and use of artificial intelligence from 30th (2023). https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2023\/11\/01\/2023-24283\/safe-secure-and-trustworthy-development-and-use-of-artificial-intelligence (2023). Accessed 2 October 2024","DOI":"10.35467\/cal\/187256"},{"key":"610_CR26","unstructured":"EU building trust in human-centric AI (COM(2019)168:). (2019). https:\/\/digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu\/en\/library\/communication-building-trust-human-centric-artificial-intelligence Accessed 17 April 2024"},{"key":"610_CR27","first-page":"611","volume":"106","author":"AZ Huq","year":"2020","unstructured":"Huq, A.Z.: A right to a human decision. Va. L Rev. 106, 611\u2013688 (2020). https:\/\/virginialawreview.org\/articles\/right-human-decision\/","journal-title":"Va. L Rev."},{"key":"610_CR28","unstructured":"EU ethics guidelines for trustworthy AI: (2019). https:\/\/digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu\/en\/library\/ethics-guidelines-trustworthy-ai Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR29","unstructured":"EU Artificial Intelligence Act: (2024). https:\/\/artificialintelligenceact.eu\/the-act\/ Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-021-09577-4","volume":"32","author":"J M\u00f6kander","year":"2022","unstructured":"M\u00f6kander, J., Axente, M., Casolari, F., Floridi, L.: Conformity assessments and post-market monitoring: a guide to the role of monitoring in the proposed European AI regulation. Minds Mach. 32, 241\u2013268 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11023-021-09577-4","journal-title":"Minds Mach."},{"key":"610_CR31","first-page":"219","volume-title":"Digital Dominance. The Power of Google, Amazon, Facebook, and Apple","author":"B Wagner","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wagner, B.: Free expression? Dominant information intermediaries as arbiters of internet speech. In: Moore, M., Tambini, D. (eds.) Digital Dominance. The Power of Google, Amazon, Facebook, and Apple, pp. 219\u2013240. Oxford University Press, New York (2018)"},{"key":"610_CR32","unstructured":"Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament: and of the Council laying down harmonized rules on artificial intelligence (AI Act) and amending certain Union legislative acts (2024). https:\/\/artificialintelligenceact.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/01\/AIA-Final-Draft-21-January-2024.pdf Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Laux, J.: Institutionalised distrust and human oversight of artificial intelligence: towards a democratic design of AI Governance under the European Union AI Act. AI & Soc (2023). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-023-01777-z","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-023-01777-z"},{"key":"610_CR34","first-page":"9","volume":"12","author":"R Koulu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Koulu, R.: Human control over automation: EU policy and AI ethics. EJLS. 12, 9\u201346 (2020). https:\/\/cadmus.eui.eu\/handle\/1814\/66992","journal-title":"EJLS"},{"key":"610_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Green, B.: The flaws of policies requiring human oversight of government algorithms. Comput. Law Sec Rev. 45 (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clsr.2022.105681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clsr.2022.105681"},{"key":"610_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-90331-2_12","volume-title":"Personality and data Protection Rights on the Internet","author":"W Schulz","year":"2022","unstructured":"Schulz, W.: Regulating intermediaries to protect personality rights online\u2014the case of the German NetzDG. In: Albers, M., Sarlet, I.W. (eds.) Personality and data Protection Rights on the Internet, pp. 289\u2013306. Springer, Heidelberg (2022)"},{"key":"610_CR37","unstructured":"Meta Oversight Board Charter: (2024). https:\/\/www.oversightboard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/OB_Charter_March_2024.pdf Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR38","unstructured":"Douek, E.: What kind of Oversight Board have you given us? U. Chi. L Rev. Online, 05\/11\/2020 https:\/\/lawreview.uchicago.edu\/online-archive\/what-kind-oversight-board-have-you-given-us"},{"key":"610_CR39","unstructured":"Meta Oversight Board Bylaws: (2024). https:\/\/www.oversightboard.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/Oversight-Board-Bylaws.pdf Accessed 2 October 2024"},{"key":"610_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ang, P.H., Haristya, S.: The governance, legitimacy and efficacy of Facebook\u2019s Oversight Board: a model for global tech platforms? Emerg. Media, online first (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/27523543241266860","DOI":"10.1177\/27523543241266860"},{"key":"610_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaminski, M.E.: Binary governance: lessons from the GDPR\u2019s approach to algorithmic accountability. S Cal L Rev. 92, 1529\u20131616 (2019).","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3351404"},{"key":"610_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-15729-6","volume-title":"An Introduction to Machine Learning","author":"G Rebala","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rebala, G., Ravi, A., Churiwala, S.: An Introduction to Machine Learning. Springer, Cham (2019)"},{"key":"610_CR43","unstructured":"Kaufmann, T., et al.: A survey of reinforcement learning from human feedback (2024). https:\/\/arxiv.org\/pdf\/2312.14925"},{"key":"610_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1109\/TCDS.2024.3377445","volume":"16","author":"TR McIntosh","year":"2024","unstructured":"McIntosh, T.R., et al.: The inadequacy of reinforcement learning from human feedback\u2014radicalizing large language models via semantic vulnerabilities. IEEE Trans. Cogn. Dev. Syst. 16, 1561\u20131574 (2024)","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Cogn. Dev. Syst."},{"key":"610_CR45","first-page":"759","volume":"121","author":"E Douek","year":"2021","unstructured":"Douek, E.: Governing online speech: from posts-as-trumps to proportionality and probability. Colum L Rev. 121, 759\u2013834 (2021). https:\/\/columbialawreview.org\/content\/governing-online-speech-from-posts-as-trumps-to-proportionality-and-probability\/","journal-title":"Colum L Rev."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-024-00645-w","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,17]],"date-time":"2024-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734393600000}}],"container-title":["AI and Ethics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43681-024-00610-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s43681-024-00610-7\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43681-024-00610-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,24]],"date-time":"2025-05-24T09:12:28Z","timestamp":1748077948000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s43681-024-00610-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["610"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-024-00610-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["2730-5953","2730-5961"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2730-5953","type":"print"},{"value":"2730-5961","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2 May 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 November 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 November 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 December 2024","order":4,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":5,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"A Correction to this paper has been published:","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-024-00645-w","URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-024-00645-w","order":7,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}