{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T11:07:43Z","timestamp":1774264063202,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI Ethics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-025-00891-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T11:20:25Z","timestamp":1764847225000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["MVP: the minimal viable person"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Izak","family":"Tait","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"891_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1001024","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001024","volume":"9","author":"JR Anderson","year":"2011","unstructured":"Anderson, J.R., Gallup, G.G., Jr.: Which primates recognize themselves in mirrors? PLoS Biol. 9, e1001024 (2011)","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"891_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"789327","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.789327","volume":"8","author":"SMC Avila Negri","year":"2021","unstructured":"Avila Negri, S.M.C.: Robot as legal person: electronic personhood in robotics and artificial intelligence. Front. Robot. AI 8, 789327 (2021)","journal-title":"Front. Robot. AI"},{"key":"891_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banteka, N.: Artificially Intelligent Persons. Hous. L. Rev. 58 (2021)","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3552269"},{"key":"891_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1080\/00107530.2003.10747213","volume":"39","author":"B Beebe","year":"2003","unstructured":"Beebe, B., Lachmann, F.: The relational turn in psychoanalysis. Contemp. Psychoanal. 39, 379\u2013409 (2003)","journal-title":"Contemp. Psychoanal."},{"key":"891_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-017-9214-9","volume":"25","author":"JJ Bryson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bryson, J.J., Diamantis, M.E., Grant, T.D.: Of, for, and by the people: the legal lacuna of synthetic persons. Artif. Intell. Law 25, 273\u2013291 (2017)","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Law"},{"key":"891_CR6","unstructured":"Butlin, P., Long, R., Elmoznino, E. et al: Consciousness in Artificial Intelligence: Insights from the Science of Consciousness. arXiv [cs.AI] (2023)"},{"key":"891_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3998\/mpub.356801","volume-title":"A Legal Theory for Autonomous Artificial Agents","author":"S Chopra","year":"2011","unstructured":"Chopra, S., White, L.F.: A Legal Theory for Autonomous Artificial Agents. University of Michigan Press (2011)"},{"key":"891_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-3950-5_7","volume-title":"What is a person?","author":"D Dennett","year":"1988","unstructured":"Dennett, D.: Conditions of Personhood. In: Goodman, M.F. (ed.) What is a person?, pp. 145\u2013167. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ (1988)"},{"key":"891_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauquet-Alekhine, P.: Can the Robot be Considered a Person? The European Perspective. Adv. Res. 100\u2013105 (2022)","DOI":"10.9734\/air\/2022\/v23i6924"},{"key":"891_CR10","unstructured":"Forrest, KB.: The Ethics and Challenges of Legal Personhood for AI. Yale Law J 133 (2024)"},{"key":"891_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429288159","volume-title":"Rights for Robots: Artificial Intelligence, Animal, and Environmental Law, 1st Edition","author":"JC Gellers","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gellers, J.C.: Rights for Robots: Artificial Intelligence, Animal, and Environmental Law, 1st Edition. Routledge (2020)"},{"key":"891_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-021-01179-z","volume":"37","author":"M Gibert","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gibert, M., Martin, D.: In search of the moral status of AI: why sentience is a strong argument. AI Soc. 37, 319\u2013330 (2022)","journal-title":"AI Soc."},{"key":"891_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctt7s1jn","volume-title":"Affluence and Influence: Economic Inequality and Political Power in America","author":"M Gilens","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gilens, M.: Affluence and Influence: Economic Inequality and Political Power in America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ (2012)"},{"key":"891_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-020-01063-2","volume":"36","author":"J-S Gordon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gordon, J.-S.: Artificial moral and legal personhood. AI Soc. 36, 457\u2013471 (2021)","journal-title":"AI Soc."},{"key":"891_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-021-00050-7","volume":"1","author":"J-S Gordon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gordon, J.-S., Pasvenskiene, A.: Human rights for robots? A literature review. AI Ethics 1, 579\u2013591 (2021)","journal-title":"AI Ethics"},{"key":"891_CR16","unstructured":"Gunkel, DJ.: Robot Rights. In: MIT Press. https:\/\/mitpress.mit.edu\/9780262551571\/robot-rights\/. Accessed 20 Oct 2024 (2021)"},{"key":"891_CR17","volume":"19","author":"M Hashiguchi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hashiguchi, M.: Constitutional rights of artificial intelligence. Wash. J. Law Technol. Arts 19, 2 (2024)","journal-title":"Wash. J. Law Technol. Arts"},{"key":"891_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaynes TL: Personhood for artificial intelligence? A cautionary tale from Idaho and Utah. AI Soc. 1\u20133 (2024)","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-024-02006-x"},{"key":"891_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1205465","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2023.1205465","volume":"6","author":"M Ki\u0161kis","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ki\u0161kis, M.: Legal framework for the coexistence of humans and conscious AI. Front. Artif. Intell. 6, 1205465 (2023)","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"891_CR20","unstructured":"Knight, K.: Summa Theologiae: The divine persons (Prima Pars, Q. 29). In: New Advent. https:\/\/www.newadvent.org\/summa\/1029.htm. Accessed 13 Aug 2025 (2017)"},{"key":"891_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurki, VAJ.: The legal personhood of artificial intelligences. In: A Theory of Legal Personhood. Oxford University PressOxford, pp 175\u2013190 (2019)","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198844037.003.0007"},{"key":"891_CR22","unstructured":"Laitinen, A.: Sorting out aspects of personhood: Capacities, normativity and recognition. Journal of consciousness studies (2007)"},{"key":"891_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, E., Morgan, P.: Comparative Perspectives. In: The Cambridge Handbook of Private Law and Artificial Intelligence. Cambridge University Press, pp 597\u2013656 (2024)","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108980197.031"},{"key":"891_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-022-01439-6","author":"K Mamak","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mamak, K.: Should criminal law protect love relation with robots? AI Soc. (2022). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00146-022-01439-6","journal-title":"AI Soc."},{"key":"891_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patter.2023.100861","volume":"4","author":"B Marshall","year":"2023","unstructured":"Marshall, B.: No legal personhood for AI. Patterns 4, 100861 (2023)","journal-title":"Patterns"},{"key":"891_CR26","first-page":"4","volume":"19","author":"TW Mathison","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mathison, T.W.: Recognizing right: the status of artificial intelligence. J. Bus. Technol. Law 19, 4 (2023)","journal-title":"J. Bus. Technol. Law"},{"key":"891_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mays, KK., Cummings, JJ., Katz, JE.: The robot rights and responsibilities scale: Development and validation of a metric for understanding perceptions of robots\u2019 rights and responsibilities. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact 1\u201318 (2024)","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2338332"},{"key":"891_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-3287(88)90019-5","volume":"20","author":"P McNally","year":"1988","unstructured":"McNally, P., Inayatullah, S.: The rights of robots. Futures 20, 119\u2013136 (1988)","journal-title":"Futures"},{"key":"891_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"788179","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.788179","volume":"8","author":"DM Mocanu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mocanu, D.M.: Gradient legal personhood for AI systems-painting continental legal shapes made to fit analytical molds. Front. Robot. AI 8, 788179 (2021)","journal-title":"Front. Robot. AI"},{"key":"891_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s10892-018-9275-3","volume":"22","author":"S Mons\u00f3","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mons\u00f3, S., Benz-Schwarzburg, J., Bremhorst, A.: Animal morality: what it means and why it matters. J. Ethics 22, 283\u2013310 (2018)","journal-title":"J. Ethics"},{"key":"891_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-020-01002-1","volume":"36","author":"K Mosakas","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mosakas, K.: On the moral status of social robots: considering the consciousness criterion. AI Soc. 36, 429\u2013443 (2021)","journal-title":"AI Soc."},{"key":"891_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1038\/454015b","volume":"454","author":"Nature","year":"2008","unstructured":"Nature: Spain awards apes legal rights. Nature 454, 15\u201315 (2008)","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"891_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.5032265","author":"C Novelli","year":"2025","unstructured":"Novelli, C., Floridi, L., Sartor, G.: AI as legal persons: past, patterns, and prospects. SSRN Electron. J. (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.5032265","journal-title":"SSRN Electron. J."},{"key":"891_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.3390\/info9090230","volume":"9","author":"U Pagallo","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pagallo, U.: Vital, Sophia, and co.\u2014the quest for the legal personhood of robots. Information 9, 230 (2018)","journal-title":"Information"},{"key":"891_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2339","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13142339","volume":"13","author":"MC Pardo","year":"2023","unstructured":"Pardo, M.C.: Legal personhood for animals: has science made its case? Animals (Basel) 13, 2339 (2023)","journal-title":"Animals (Basel)"},{"key":"891_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5937","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.101086398","volume":"98","author":"D Reiss","year":"2001","unstructured":"Reiss, D., Marino, L.: Mirror self-recognition in the bottlenose dolphin: a case of cognitive convergence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 98, 5937\u20135942 (2001)","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"891_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1080\/14672715.2014.960707","volume":"46","author":"J Robertson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Robertson, J.: Human rights vs. robot rights: forecasts from Japan. Crit. Asian Stud. 46, 571\u2013598 (2014)","journal-title":"Crit. Asian Stud."},{"key":"891_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-54173-6_16","volume-title":"Robotics, AI, and Humanity","author":"WM Schr\u00f6der","year":"2021","unstructured":"Schr\u00f6der, W.M.: Robots and rights: Reviewing recent positions in legal philosophy and ethics. In: Robotics, AI, and Humanity, pp. 191\u2013203. Springer, Cham (2021)"},{"key":"891_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06647-8","volume":"623","author":"M Shanahan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shanahan, M., McDonell, K., Reynolds, L.: Role play with large language models. Nature 623, 493\u2013498 (2023)","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"891_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.5206\/ls.2015.681","volume":"15","author":"M Simendi\u0107","year":"2015","unstructured":"Simendi\u0107, M.: Locke\u2019s person is a relation. Locke Stud. 15, 79\u201397 (2015)","journal-title":"Locke Stud."},{"key":"891_CR41","first-page":"330","volume":"2","author":"PF Strawson","year":"1958","unstructured":"Strawson, P.F.: Persons. Minnesota Stud. Philos. Sci. 2, 330\u2013353 (1958)","journal-title":"Minnesota Stud. Philos. Sci."},{"key":"891_CR42","first-page":"11","volume":"19","author":"DM Sullivan","year":"2003","unstructured":"Sullivan, D.M.: The conception view of personhood: a review. Ethics Med. 19, 11\u201333 (2003)","journal-title":"Ethics Med."},{"key":"891_CR43","first-page":"59","volume":"5","author":"I Tait","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tait, I.: Man, machine, or multinational? Robonomics 5, 59\u201359 (2024)","journal-title":"Robonomics"},{"key":"891_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tait, I.: Lions and tigers and AI, oh my: An ethical framework for human-AI interaction based on the Five Freedoms of Animal Welfare. Preprints (2024b)","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202407.1846.v1"},{"key":"891_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tait, I.: Structures of the sense of self: attributes and qualities that are necessary for the \u201cSelf.\u201d Sympos.: Theor. Appl. Inquiries in Philos. Soc. Sci. 11:77\u201398 (2024c)","DOI":"10.5840\/symposion20241116"},{"key":"891_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tait, I.: Is GPT-4 Self-Aware? Preprints (2025a)","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202504.0464.v1"},{"key":"891_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tait, I.: How to integrate conscious AI into society. Preprints (2025b)","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202503.0175.v1"},{"key":"891_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.3390\/philosophies8040052","volume":"8","author":"I Tait","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tait, I., Bensemann, J., Nguyen, T.: Building the blocks of being: the attributes and qualities required for consciousness. Philosophies 8, 52 (2023)","journal-title":"Philosophies"},{"key":"891_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1142\/S270507852450005X","volume":"11","author":"I Tait","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tait, I., Bensemann, J., Wang, Z.: Is GPT-4 conscious? J. Artif. Intell. Conscious. 11, 1\u201316 (2024)","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell. Conscious."},{"key":"891_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor, C.: The Concept of a Person. In: Philosophical Papers, Volume 1: Human Agency and Language. pp 97\u2013114 (1985)","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139173483.005"},{"key":"891_CR51","unstructured":"Toth, V.: \u201cMonkey See, Monkey Sue?\u201d American and Argentine Courts Decide Whether to Extend Legal Rights to Apes. In: Inter-American Law Review. https:\/\/inter-american-law-review.law.miami.edu\/monkey-see-monkey-sue-american-argentine-courts-decide-extend-legal-rights-apes\/. Accessed 6 May 2025 (2015)"},{"key":"891_CR52","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Machine law, ethics, and morality in the age of artificial intelligence","author":"RV Yampolskiy","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yampolskiy, R.V.: AI personhood: rights and laws. In: Machine law, ethics, and morality in the age of artificial intelligence, pp. 1\u201311. IGI Global (2021)"},{"key":"891_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.3390\/bdcc3010002","volume":"3","author":"S Ziesche","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ziesche, S., Yampolskiy, R.: Towards AI welfare science and policies. Big Data Cogn. Comput. 3, 2 (2018)","journal-title":"Big Data Cogn. Comput."}],"container-title":["AI and Ethics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00891-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00891-6","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00891-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T10:24:30Z","timestamp":1774261470000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00891-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["891"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00891-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2730-5953","2730-5961"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2730-5953","type":"print"},{"value":"2730-5961","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 May 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 September 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 December 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The author declares that they have no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"33"}}