{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T21:13:35Z","timestamp":1783113215385,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766102400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766102400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AI Ethics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The use of Conversational AI (CAI) agents within education has seen a rise with the rapid integration of generative AI (GenAI). The generative ability of the application combined with conversational capabilities has enhanced the perceived and actual usefulness of CAI applications. Given this development, it is critical to undertake a comprehensive review to understand the actual application domains, challenges, and efforts within this area. A range of empirical studies as well as reviews have been undertaken in recent years, but the current understanding remains fragmented. To better understand the current state-of-the-art, current trends and future implications of CAI on education, we conducted an umbrella review (UR) to systematically synthesize findings from thirty-four review articles. Articles were collected through a search across five major databases. They were screened using predefined eligibility criteria focusing on CAI agents used across educational domains and contexts. The PRISMA framework for transparent reporting is followed throughout the process and a thematic analysis has been undertaken to analyze the data. The results show that CAI utilization is concentrated in pedagogical applications such as teaching support, psychological engagement, and metacognitive development, while administrative functions, research assistance, and specialized training remain underdeveloped. Technical limitations and concerns with educational impact dominate discussions. Ethically, human-AI relationship concerns persist across all CAI generations, while academic integrity and data privacy represent emerging areas of concern. The review reveals gaps in CAI frameworks: lack of end-to-end design guidance, weak CAI specific usability methods, unclear pedagogical guidance and classroom implementation strategies, and limited AI literacy support. The article concludes by proposing a roadmap for ethical CAI implementation in education and identifying priority areas for future research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-025-00916-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T05:48:39Z","timestamp":1766123319000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Conversational AI agents in education: an umbrella review of current utilization, challenges, and future directions for ethical and responsible use"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Amrita","family":"Ganguly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nafisa","family":"Mehjabin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aqdas","family":"Malik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aditya","family":"Johri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"916_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulkarni, P., Mahabaleshwarkar, A., Kulkarni, M., Sirsikar, N. and Gadgil, K., 2019, September. Conversational AI: An overview of methodologies, applications & future scope. In 2019 5th International conference on computing, communication, control and automation (ICCUBEA) pp. 1\u20137. IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCUBEA47591.2019.9129347"},{"key":"916_CR2","volume-title":"Conversational ai","author":"A Freed","year":"2021","unstructured":"Freed, A.: Conversational ai. Simon and Schuster (2021)"},{"key":"916_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meshram, S., Naik, N., Megha, V.R., More, T. and Kharche, S., 2021, June. Conversational AI: chatbots. In 2021 International Conference on Intelligent Technologies (CONIT) pp. 1\u20136. IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/CONIT51480.2021.9498508"},{"key":"916_CR4","volume":"2","author":"E Adamopoulou","year":"2020","unstructured":"Adamopoulou, E., Moussiades, L.: Chatbots: history, technology, and applications. Machine Learn Appl 2, 100006 (2020)","journal-title":"Machine Learn Appl"},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13334","volume":"55","author":"R Wu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wu, R., Yu, Z.: Do AI chatbots improve students learning outcomes? Evidence from a meta-analysis. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 55(1), 10\u201333 (2024)","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"issue":"7","key":"916_CR6","first-page":"255","volume":"9","author":"A Gupta","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gupta, A., Hathwar, D., Vijayakumar, A.: Introduction to AI chatbots. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 9(7), 255\u2013258 (2020)","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol."},{"key":"916_CR7","unstructured":"Duolingo (n.d.) Duolingo [Online]. Available at: https:\/\/www.duolingo.com\/ Accessed: 25 April 2025."},{"key":"916_CR8","unstructured":"Parallax Inc. (n.d.) Scribbler 3 (S3) Robot [online]. Available at: https:\/\/www.parallax.com\/product\/scribbler-3-s3-robot\/ Accessed: 25 April 2025."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-023-00426-1","volume":"20","author":"L Labadze","year":"2023","unstructured":"Labadze, L., Grigolia, M., Machaidze, L.: Role of AI chatbots in education: systematic literature review. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 20(1), 56 (2023)","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"916_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92337","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3201144","volume":"10","author":"S Kusal","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kusal, S., Patil, S., Choudrie, J., Kotecha, K., Mishra, S., Abraham, A.: AI-based conversational agents: a scoping review from technologies to future directions. IEEE Access 10, 92337\u201392356 (2022)","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"916_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johri, A., Schleiss, J. and Ranade, N., 2025, April. Lessons for GenAI Literacy from a Field Study of Human-GenAI Augmentation in the Workplace. In 2025 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) (pp. 1-9). IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/EDUCON62633.2025.11016386"},{"issue":"2","key":"916_CR12","first-page":"33","volume":"39","author":"WL Johnson","year":"2018","unstructured":"Johnson, W.L., Lester, J.C.: Pedagogical agents: back to the future. AI Mag. 39(2), 33\u201344 (2018)","journal-title":"AI Mag."},{"key":"916_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, D., Huang, R., Chen, Y., Adarkwah, M.A., Zhang, X., Li, X., Zhang, J. and Da, T., 2024. Personalized tutoring through conversational agents. In Using Educational Robots to Enhance Learning: An Analysis of 100 Academic Articles. 59\u201385. Singapore Springer Nature","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-97-5826-5_4"},{"key":"916_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, K., Jo, J., Kim, J. and Kang, Y., 2019, July. Can chatbots help reduce the workload of administrative officers?-Implementing and deploying FAQ chatbot service in a university. In International conference on human-computer interaction 348\u2013354. Cham Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-23522-2_45"},{"key":"916_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Linh PM, Star\u010di\u010d AI, Wu TT. Challenges and opportunities of education in the COVID-19 pandemic: teacher perception on applying AI chatbot for online language learning. InInternational Conference on Innovative Technologies and Learning 2022 Aug 26 pp. 501\u2013513. Cham: Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-15273-3_55"},{"key":"916_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493566","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2024.1493566","volume":"7","author":"E Ortega-Ochoa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ortega-Ochoa, E., Sabat\u00e9, J.M., Arguedas, M., Conesa, J., Daradoumis, T., Caball\u00e9, S.: Exploring the utilization and deficiencies of generative artificial intelligence in students\u2019 cognitive and emotional needs: a systematic mini-review. Front. Artif. Intell. 7, 1493566 (2024)","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2170088","DOI":"10.1080\/2331186X.2023.2170088","volume":"10","author":"E Ericsson","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ericsson, E., Sofkova Hashemi, S., Lundin, J.: Fun and frustrating: students\u2019 perspectives on practising speaking English with virtual humans. Cogent Educ. 10(1), 2170088 (2023)","journal-title":"Cogent Educ."},{"key":"916_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Binhammad, M. and Shaalan, K., 2024, June. A Statistical Analysis to Investigate the Factors Affecting Generative AI Use in Education and Its Impacts on Social Sustainability Using SPSS. In International Conference on Breaking Barriers with Generative Intelligence. pp 175\u2013186. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-65996-6_15"},{"issue":"11","key":"916_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.3390\/systems13111013","volume":"13","author":"R Mart\u00ednez-Pel\u00e1ez","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Pel\u00e1ez, R., Mena, L.J., Toral-Cruz, H., Ochoa-Brust, A., Potes, A.G., Flores, V., Ostos, R., Pacheco, J.C.R., F\u00e9lix, R.A., F\u00e9lix, V.G.: Can large language models foster critical thinking, teamwork, and problem-solving skills in higher education? A literature review. Systems 13(11), 1013 (2025)","journal-title":"Systems"},{"key":"916_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scholl, A. and Kiesler, N., 2024. How Novice Programmers Use and Experience ChatGPT when Solving Programming Exercises in an Introductory Course. arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.20792.","DOI":"10.1109\/FIE61694.2024.10893442"},{"key":"916_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almatrafi, O. and Johri, A., 2025. Leveraging generative AI for course learning outcome categorization using Bloom's taxonomy. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 8, p.100404.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2025.100404"},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13040-023-00339-9","volume":"16","author":"JG Meyer","year":"2023","unstructured":"Meyer, J.G., Urbanowicz, R.J., Martin, P.C., O\u2019Connor, K., Li, R., Peng, P.C., Bright, T.J., Tatonetti, N., Won, K.J., Gonzalez-Hernandez, G., Moore, J.H.: ChatGPT and large language models in academia: opportunities and challenges. BioData Mining 16(1), 20 (2023)","journal-title":"BioData Mining"},{"key":"916_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-025-00688-7","author":"A Ganguly","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ganguly, A., Johri, A., Ali, A., McDonald, N.: Generative artificial intelligence for academic research: evidence from guidance issued for researchers by higher education institutions in the United States. AI Ethics (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00688-7","journal-title":"AI Ethics"},{"key":"916_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbah.2025.100121","author":"N McDonald","year":"2025","unstructured":"McDonald, N., Johri, A., Ali, A., Collier, A.H.: Generative artificial intelligence in higher education: evidence from an analysis of institutional policies and guidelines. Comp Hum Behav: Artif Hum (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chbah.2025.100121","journal-title":"Comp Hum Behav: Artif Hum"},{"key":"916_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heilala, V., Araya, R. and H\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen, R., 2024. Beyond Text-to-Text: An Overview of Multimodal and Generative Artificial Intelligence for Education Using Topic Modeling. arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.16376.","DOI":"10.1145\/3672608.3707764"},{"key":"916_CR26","volume":"14","author":"R Melisa","year":"2025","unstructured":"Melisa, R., Ashadi, A., Triastuti, A., Hidayati, S., Salido, A., Ero, P.E.L., Marlini, C., Zefrin, Z., Al Fuad, Z.: Critical thinking in the age of AI: a systematic review of AI\u2019s effects on higher education. Educational Process: International Journal 14, e2025031 (2025)","journal-title":"Educational Process: International Journal"},{"issue":"2","key":"916_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13544","volume":"56","author":"Yizhou Fan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Fan, Y., Tang, L., Le, H., Shen, K., Tan, S., Zhao, Y., Shen, Y., Li, X. and Ga\u0161evi\u0107, D., 2025. Beware of metacognitive laziness: Effects of generative artificial intelligence on learning motivation, processes, and performance. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(2), pp.489-530.","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Technology"},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/s40594-023-00452-5","volume":"10","author":"BH Nam","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nam, B.H., Bai, Q.: ChatGPT and its ethical implications for STEM research and higher education: a media discourse analysis. Int. J. STEM Educ. 10(1), 66 (2023)","journal-title":"Int. J. STEM Educ."},{"key":"916_CR29","volume":"6","author":"HB Essel","year":"2024","unstructured":"Essel, H.B., Vlachopoulos, D., Essuman, A.B., Amankwa, J.O.: ChatGPT effects on cognitive skills of undergraduate students: receiving instant responses from AI-based conversational large language models (LLMs). Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence 6, 100198 (2024)","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"916_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harvey, E., Koenecke, A. and Kizilcec, R.F., 2025, April. \u201c Don't Forget the Teachers\u201d: Towards an Educator-Centered Understanding of Harms from Large Language Models in Education. In Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems pp. 1\u201319","DOI":"10.1145\/3706598.3713210"},{"issue":"6","key":"916_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2885","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12863","volume":"50","author":"D Richards","year":"2019","unstructured":"Richards, D., Dignum, V.: Supporting and challenging learners through pedagogical agents: addressing ethical issues through designing for values. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 50(6), 2885\u20132901 (2019)","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"issue":"7","key":"916_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5614","DOI":"10.3390\/su15075614","volume":"15","author":"C Kooli","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kooli, C.: Chatbots in education and research: a critical examination of ethical implications and solutions. Sustainability 15(7), 5614 (2023)","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"916_CR33","first-page":"104","volume":"2563","author":"E Ruane","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ruane, E., Birhane, A., Ventresque, A.: Conversational AI: social and ethical considerations. AICS 2563, 104\u2013115 (2019)","journal-title":"AICS"},{"issue":"6","key":"916_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.3390\/info16060469","volume":"16","author":"DM C\u00f3rdova-Esparza","year":"2025","unstructured":"C\u00f3rdova-Esparza, D.M.: AI-powered educational agents: opportunities, innovations, and ethical challenges. Information 16(6), 469 (2025)","journal-title":"Information"},{"issue":"2","key":"916_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.70001","volume":"41","author":"A \u015eahin K\u0131z\u0131l","year":"2025","unstructured":"\u015eahin K\u0131z\u0131l, A., Klimova, B., Pikhart, M., Parmaxi, A.: A systematic review of the recent research on the usefulness of chatbots for language education. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 41(2), e70001 (2025)","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Learn."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.teln.2024.11.010","volume":"20","author":"LJ Labrague","year":"2024","unstructured":"Labrague, L.J., Al Sabei, S.: Integration of AI-Powered Chatbots in Nursing Education: A Scoping Review of Their Utilization, Outcomes, and Challenges. Teach Learn Nursing. 20(1), e285\u2013e295 (2024)","journal-title":"Teach Learn Nursing."},{"key":"916_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436350","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2024.1436350","volume":"7","author":"C Sengul","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sengul, C., Neykova, R., Destefanis, G.: Software engineering education in the era of conversational AI: current trends and future directions. Front. Artif. Intell. 7, 1436350 (2024)","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"916_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-025-10447-4","author":"H Yusuf","year":"2025","unstructured":"Yusuf, H., Money, A., Daylamani-Zad, D.: Pedagogical AI conversational agents in higher education: a conceptual framework and survey of the state of the art. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. (2025). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11423-025-10447-4","journal-title":"Educ. Technol. Res. Dev."},{"key":"916_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3352\/jeehp.2024.21.6","author":"X Xu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xu, X., Chen, Y., Miao, J.: Opportunities, challenges, and future directions of large language models, including ChatGPT in medical education: a systematic scoping review. J. Educ. Eval. Health Prof. (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3352\/jeehp.2024.21.6","journal-title":"J. Educ. Eval. Health Prof."},{"issue":"8","key":"916_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331241288476","volume":"62","author":"NL Schroeder","year":"2025","unstructured":"Schroeder, N.L., Davis, R.O., Yang, E.: Designing and learning with pedagogical agents: AnUR. J. Educ. Comput. Res. 62(8), 2127\u20132156 (2025)","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"916_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Namoun, A., Ibrahim, I.A., Mustafa, E., Alrehaili, A., Tufail, A., Shuja, J., Bilal, K. and Alanazi, M.H., 2024. Generative artificial intelligence in education: an umbrella review of applications and challenges. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21203\/rs.3.rs-4892155\/v1","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-4892155\/v1"},{"key":"916_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","volume":"372","author":"MJ Page","year":"2021","unstructured":"Page, M.J., McKenzie, J.E., Bossuyt, P.M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T.C., Mulrow, C.D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J.M., Akl, E.A., Brennan, S.E., Chou, R.: The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372, 71 (2021)","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"916_CR43","unstructured":"Joanna Briggs Institute, 2017. Critical Appraisal Checklist for Systematic Reviews and Research Syntheses. [online] Available at: https:\/\/jbi.global\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-05\/JBI_Critical_Appraisal-Checklist_for_Systematic_Reviews2017_0.pdf Accessed 13 November 2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"916_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1108\/ITSE-12-2022-0165","volume":"21","author":"Y Lin","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lin, Y., Yu, Z.: A bibliometric analysis of artificial intelligence chatbots in educational contexts. Interact. Technol. Smart Educ. 21(2), 189\u2013213 (2024)","journal-title":"Interact. Technol. Smart Educ."},{"issue":"3","key":"916_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1080\/17439760.2016.1262613","volume":"12","author":"V Clarke","year":"2017","unstructured":"Clarke, V., Braun, V.: Thematic analysis. J. Posit. Psychol. 12(3), 297\u2013298 (2017)","journal-title":"J. Posit. Psychol."},{"key":"916_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2021.654924","volume":"4","author":"S Wollny","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wollny, S., Schneider, J., Di Mitri, D., Weidlich, J., Rittberger, M., Drachsler, H.: Are we there yet?-a systematic literature review on chatbots in education. Frontiers in artificial intelligence 4, 654924 (2021)","journal-title":"Frontiers in artificial intelligence"},{"issue":"6","key":"916_CR47","first-page":"37","volume":"40","author":"X Weng","year":"2024","unstructured":"Weng, X., Qi, X.I.A., Gu, M., Rajaram, K., Chiu, T.K.: Assessment and learning outcomes for generative AI in higher education: A scoping review on current research status and trends. Australas J Edu Tech. 40(6), 37\u201355 (2024)","journal-title":"Australas J Edu Tech."},{"key":"916_CR48","volume":"190","author":"L Dai","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dai, L., Jung, M.M., Postma, M., Louwerse, M.M.: A systematic review of pedagogical agent research: similarities, differences and unexplored aspects. Comput. Educ. 190, 104607 (2022)","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"issue":"7","key":"916_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/fi16070219","volume":"16","author":"K Wangsa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wangsa, K., Karim, S., Gide, E., Elkhodr, M.: A systematic review and comprehensive analysis of pioneering AI chatbot models from education to healthcare: ChatGPT, Bard, Llama, Ernie and Grok. Future Internet 16(7), 219 (2024)","journal-title":"Future Internet"},{"key":"916_CR50","first-page":"100230","volume":"6","author":"DU Jinming","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jinming, D.U., Daniel, B.K.: A systematic review of AI-powered chatbots in EFL speaking practice: Transforming language education. Comp Edu: Artif Intelli. 6, 100230 (2024)","journal-title":"Comp Edu: Artif Intelli."},{"key":"916_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13128-6","author":"W Ma","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ma, W., Ma, W., Hu, Y., Bi, X.: The who, why, and how of AI-based chatbots for learning and teaching in higher education: a systematic review. Educ. Inf. Technol. (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-024-13128-6","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s43621-025-00815-8","volume":"6","author":"T Shahzad","year":"2025","unstructured":"Shahzad, T., Mazhar, T., Tariq, M.U., Ahmad, W., Ouahada, K., Hamam, H.: A comprehensive review of large language models: issues and solutions in learning environments. Discover Sustain. 6(1), 27 (2025)","journal-title":"Discover Sustain."},{"key":"916_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2024.2436931","author":"E Anjulo Lambebo","year":"2024","unstructured":"Anjulo Lambebo, E., Chen, H.L.: Chatbots in higher education: a systematic review. Interact. Learn. Environ. (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10494820.2024.2436931","journal-title":"Interact. Learn. Environ."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11177-3","volume":"28","author":"MA Kuhail","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kuhail, M.A., Alturki, N., Alramlawi, S., Alhejori, K.: Interacting with educational chatbots: a systematic review. Educ. Inf. Technol. 28(1), 973\u20131018 (2023)","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/ejed.70036","volume":"60","author":"K Daniel","year":"2025","unstructured":"Daniel, K., Msambwa, M.M., Wen, Z.: Can generative AI revolutionise academic skills development in higher education? A systematic literature review. Eur. J. Educ. 60(1), e70036 (2025)","journal-title":"Eur. J. Educ."},{"key":"916_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2023.102233","volume":"122","author":"DS Pereira","year":"2023","unstructured":"Pereira, D.S., Falc\u00e3o, F., Costa, L., Lunn, B.S., P\u00eago, J.M., Costa, P.: Here\u2019s to the future: conversational agents in higher education-a scoping review. Int. J. Educ. Res. 122, 102233 (2023)","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Res."},{"key":"916_CR57","unstructured":"Khosrawi-Rad, B., Rinn, H., Schlimbach, R., Gebbing, P., Yang, X., Lattemann, C., Markgraf, D. and Robra-Bissantz, S., 2022. Conversational Agents in Education\u2013A Systematic Literature Review. ECIS 2022 Research Papers [online]"},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR58","first-page":"55","volume":"33","author":"SJ Lin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lin, S.J., Sun, C.Y., Chen, D.N., Kang, Y.N., Hoang, K.D., Chen, K.H., Chen, C.: Chatbots for breast cancer education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Support. Care Cancer 33(1), 55 (2025)","journal-title":"Support. Care Cancer"},{"issue":"11","key":"916_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1111\/medu.15402","volume":"58","author":"HC Lucas","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lucas, H.C., Upperman, J.S., Robinson, J.R.: A systematic review of large language models and their implications in medical education. Med. Educ. 58(11), 1276\u20131285 (2024)","journal-title":"Med. Educ."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.46328\/ijte.600","volume":"7","author":"S G\u00f6k\u00e7earslan","year":"2024","unstructured":"G\u00f6k\u00e7earslan, S., Tosun, C., Erdemir, Z.G.: Benefits, challenges, and methods of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots in education: a systematic literature review. Int. J. Technol. Educ. 7(1), 19\u201339 (2024)","journal-title":"Int. J. Technol. Educ."},{"issue":"6","key":"916_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1002\/cae.22326","volume":"28","author":"JQ P\u00e9rez","year":"2020","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez, J.Q., Daradoumis, T., Puig, J.M.M.: Rediscovering the use of chatbots in education: a systematic literature review. Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ. 28(6), 1549\u20131565 (2020)","journal-title":"Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ."},{"key":"916_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12725-9","author":"J Jeon","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jeon, J., Lee, S.: Can learners benefit from chatbots instead of humans? A systematic review of human-chatbot comparison research in language education. Educ. Inf. Technol. (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10639-024-12725-9","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"issue":"4","key":"916_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2940","DOI":"10.3390\/su15042940","volume":"15","author":"X Deng","year":"2023","unstructured":"Deng, X., Yu, Z.: A meta-analysis and systematic review of the effect of chatbot technology use in sustainable education. Sustainability 15(4), 2940 (2023)","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"3","key":"916_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.36244\/ICJ.2024.3.3","volume":"16","author":"R Al-Shabandar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Al-Shabandar, R., Jaddoa, A., Elwi, T., Mohammed, A., Hussain, A.: A systematic review for the implication of generative AI in higher education. Infocommunications J. 16(3), 31\u201342 (2024)","journal-title":"Infocommunications J."},{"key":"916_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477898","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1477898","volume":"11","author":"S Aydin","year":"2024","unstructured":"Aydin, S., Karabacak, M., Vlachos, V., Margetis, K.: Large language models in patient education: a scoping review of applications in medicine. Front. Med. 11, 1477898 (2024)","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"issue":"11","key":"916_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6442","DOI":"10.3390\/su14116442","volume":"14","author":"UC Apoki","year":"2022","unstructured":"Apoki, U.C., Hussein, A.M.A., Al-Chalabi, H.K.M., Badica, C., Mocanu, M.L.: The role of pedagogical agents in personalised adaptive learning: a review. Sustainability 14(11), 6442 (2022)","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1080\/15391523.2022.2142873","volume":"55","author":"H Ji","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ji, H., Han, I., Ko, Y.: A systematic review of conversational AI in language education: focusing on the collaboration with human teachers. J. Res. Technol. Educ. 55(1), 48\u201363 (2023)","journal-title":"J. Res. Technol. Educ."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s44217-025-00424-7","volume":"4","author":"S Guizani","year":"2025","unstructured":"Guizani, S., Mazhar, T., Shahzad, T., Ahmad, W., Bibi, A., Hamam, H.: A systematic literature review to implement large language model in higher education: issues and solutions. Discover Education 4(1), 1\u201325 (2025)","journal-title":"Discover Education"},{"key":"916_CR69","volume":"2","author":"CW Okonkwo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Okonkwo, C.W., Ade-Ibijola, A.: Chatbots applications in education: a systematic review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence 2, 100033 (2021)","journal-title":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"2","key":"916_CR70","first-page":"7316","volume":"22","author":"MDM Yusoff","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yusoff, M.D.M., Yusof, A.M., Anuar, A.A.M., Akma, N.S., Jamaludin, M.S.K.R.: Effects of Pedagogical Agent on Learner\u2019s Cognitive Load and Intrinsic Motivation: A Systematic Literature Review. Pak J Life Soc Sci. 22(2), 7316\u20137327 (2024)","journal-title":"Pak J Life Soc Sci."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3991\/ijep.v15i1.53379","volume":"15","author":"J Sardi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sardi, J., Candra, O., Yuliana, D.F., Yanto, D.T.P., Eliza, F.: How Generative AI Influences Students\u2019 Self-Regulated Learning and Critical Thinking Skills? A Systematic Review. Int J Eng Pedag 15(1), 94\u2013108 (2025)","journal-title":"Int J Eng Pedag"},{"key":"916_CR72","first-page":"37","volume-title":"Psychology of learning and motivation","author":"J Sweller","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sweller, J.: Cognitive load theory. In: Mestre, J.P., Ross, B.H. (eds.) Psychology of learning and motivation, pp. 37\u201376. Elsevier Academic Press (2011)"},{"key":"916_CR73","first-page":"85","volume-title":"Psychology of learning and motivation 41","author":"RE Mayer","year":"2002","unstructured":"Mayer, R.E.: Multimedia learning. In: Ross, B.H. (ed.) Psychology of learning and motivation 41, pp. 85\u2013139. Elseiver Academic Press (2002)"},{"key":"916_CR74","unstructured":"Sinnott-Armstrong, W., 2003. Consequentialism."},{"issue":"10","key":"916_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.3109\/0142159X.2016.1173661","volume":"38","author":"JGS Goldie","year":"2016","unstructured":"Goldie, J.G.S.: Connectivism: a knowledge learning theory for the digital age? Med. Teach. 38(10), 1064\u20131069 (2016)","journal-title":"Med. Teach."},{"issue":"1","key":"916_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.52.1.1","volume":"52","author":"A Bandura","year":"2001","unstructured":"Bandura, A.: Social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 52(1), 1\u201326 (2001)","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"916_CR77","first-page":"671","volume":"104","author":"S Barocas","year":"2016","unstructured":"Barocas, S., Selbst, A.D.: Big data\u2019s disparate impact. Calif. L. Rev. 104, 671 (2016)","journal-title":"Calif. L. Rev."}],"container-title":["AI and Ethics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00916-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00916-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00916-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T10:27:03Z","timestamp":1774261623000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00916-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["916"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43681-025-00916-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["2730-5953","2730-5961"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2730-5953","type":"print"},{"value":"2730-5961","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"27 April 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 November 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 December 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"72"}}