{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T22:46:22Z","timestamp":1773182782284,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773100800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773100800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Auton. Intell. Syst."],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Blockchain has achieved widespread application in various fields due to its decentralized nature, data immutability, and transparency. Particularly, its integration with satellite networks provides a more secure and efficient solution for cross-regional, high-speed transmission, and reliable communication. However, challenges such as network fluctuations, performance bottlenecks, and leader election issues arise in this context, primarily due to the uneven computational power distribution of heterogeneous devices in satellite networks, as well as bandwidth limitations, signal delays, and instability. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a Dynamic Scoped Hierarchical Raft algorithm based on the network performance and computational power differences of nodes. The algorithm establishes consensus groups and restricts the pool of eligible leader candidates, thereby enhancing the adaptability of blockchain in satellite networks. Furthermore, by introducing different consensus subgroups, the scalability of the blockchain system is improved. Experimental results show that, compared to the traditional Raft algorithm, the proposed algorithm achieves a 65% increase in average throughput, a 12% reduction in latency, and a 71% reduction in leader election time, with a significantly lower chance of leader node failure when nodes drop out due to network instability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s43684-026-00126-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T03:35:00Z","timestamp":1773113700000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Satellite network-optimized Dynamic Scoped Hierarchical Raft for blockchain consensus"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Jingyi","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nan","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1886-9452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongjian","family":"Weng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qiangyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guo","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yufei","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chunqi","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"126_CR1","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2018 IEEE 6th Workshop on Advances in Information, Electronic and Electrical Engineering (AIEEE)","author":"J. Golosova","year":"2018","unstructured":"J. Golosova, A. Romanovs, The advantages and disadvantages of the blockchain technology, in 2018 IEEE 6th Workshop on Advances in Information, Electronic and Electrical Engineering (AIEEE) (IEEE, 2018), pp. 1\u20136"},{"issue":"11","key":"126_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.3390\/fi14110341","volume":"14","author":"G. Habib","year":"2022","unstructured":"G. Habib, S. Sharma, S. Ibrahim, I. Ahmad, S. Qureshi, M. Ishfaq, Blockchain technology: benefits, challenges, applications, and integration of blockchain technology with cloud computing. Future Internet 14(11), 341 (2022)","journal-title":"Future Internet"},{"key":"126_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43620","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3065880","volume":"9","author":"B. Lashkari","year":"2021","unstructured":"B. Lashkari, P. Musilek, A comprehensive review of blockchain consensus mechanisms. IEEE Access 9, 43620\u201343652 (2021)","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"13s","key":"126_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3579845","volume":"55","author":"J. Xu","year":"2023","unstructured":"J. Xu, C. Wang, X. Jia, A survey of blockchain consensus protocols. ACM Comput. Surv. 55(13s), 1\u201335 (2023)","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"126_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.23919\/MIPRO.2018.8400278","volume-title":"2018 41st International Convention on Information and Communication Technology, Electronics and Microelectronics (MIPRO)","author":"L.M. Bach","year":"2018","unstructured":"L.M. Bach, B. Mihaljevic, M. Zagar, Comparative analysis of blockchain consensus algorithms, in 2018 41st International Convention on Information and Communication Technology, Electronics and Microelectronics (MIPRO) (Ieee, 2018), pp. 1545\u20131550"},{"issue":"8","key":"126_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11432-017-9426-4","volume":"61","author":"X. Ji","year":"2018","unstructured":"X. Ji, K. Huang, L. Jin, H. Tang, C. Liu, Z. Zhong, W. You, X. Xu, H. Zhao, J. Wu, et al., Overview of 5g security technology. Sci. China Inf. Sci. 61(8), 081301 (2018)","journal-title":"Sci. China Inf. Sci."},{"issue":"10","key":"126_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.4236\/jsea.2016.910036","volume":"9","author":"A. Bahga","year":"2016","unstructured":"A. Bahga, V.K. Madisetti, Blockchain platform for industrial Internet of things. J. Softw. Eng. Appl. 9(10), 533\u2013546 (2016)","journal-title":"J. Softw. Eng. Appl."},{"key":"126_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.10.014","volume":"100","author":"M. Andoni","year":"2019","unstructured":"M. Andoni, V. Robu, D. Flynn, S. Abram, D. Geach, D. Jenkins, P. McCallum, A. Peacock, Blockchain technology in the energy sector: a systematic review of challenges and opportunities. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 100, 143\u2013174 (2019)","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"126_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2292","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2016.2566339","volume":"4","author":"K. Christidis","year":"2016","unstructured":"K. Christidis, M. Devetsikiotis, Blockchains and smart contracts for the Internet of things. IEEE Access 4, 2292\u20132303 (2016)","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"126_CR10","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2020 IEEE Aerospace Conference","author":"L. Clark","year":"2020","unstructured":"L. Clark, Y.-C. Tung, M. Clark, L. Zapanta, A blockchain-based reputation system for small satellite relay networks, in 2020 IEEE Aerospace Conference (IEEE, 2020), pp. 1\u20138"},{"issue":"4","key":"126_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.011.2100048","volume":"35","author":"Z. Bao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Z. Bao, M. Luo, H. Wang, K.-K.R. Choo, D. He, Blockchain-based secure communication for space information networks. IEEE Netw. 35(4), 50\u201357 (2021)","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"126_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2024.110718","volume":"253","author":"R. Du","year":"2024","unstructured":"R. Du, T. Chen, J. Tian, T. Shang, Starcross: redactable blockchain-based secure and lightweight data sharing framework for satellite-based iot. Comput. Netw. 253, 110718 (2024)","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"126_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2022.108793","volume":"206","author":"T. Xiong","year":"2022","unstructured":"T. Xiong, R. Zhang, J. Liu, T. Huang, Y. Liu, F.R. Yu, A blockchain-based and privacy-preserved authentication scheme for inter-constellation collaboration in space-ground integrated networks. Comput. Netw. 206, 108793 (2022)","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"126_CR14","unstructured":"W. Wu, C. Tan, K. Yang, Z. Shen, Q. Zheng, J. Jin, A sharded blockchain-based secure federated learning framework for Leo satellite networks (2024). arXiv preprint. arXiv:2411.06137"},{"issue":"1","key":"126_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-023-10433-0","volume":"131","author":"L. Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"L. Wang, Y. Zheng, Y. Zhang, F. Li, Secure spectrum sharing for satellite Internet-of-things based on blockchain. Wirel. Pers. Commun. 131(1), 357\u2013369 (2023)","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"126_CR16","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2019 IEEE International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Technologies (ICECCT)","author":"M.S. Devi","year":"2019","unstructured":"M.S. Devi, R. Suguna, P. Abhinaya, Integration of blockchain and iot in satellite monitoring process, in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Technologies (ICECCT) (IEEE, 2019), pp. 1\u20136"},{"issue":"1","key":"126_CR17","volume":"2018","author":"S. Wei","year":"2018","unstructured":"S. Wei, S. Li, P. Liu, M. Liu, Bavp: blockchain-based access verification protocol in Leo constellation using ibe keys. Secur. Commun. Netw. 2018(1), 7202806 (2018)","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"126_CR18","first-page":"305","volume-title":"2014 USENIX Annual Technical Conference (USENIX ATC 14)","author":"D. Ongaro","year":"2014","unstructured":"D. Ongaro, J. Ousterhout, In search of an understandable consensus algorithm, in 2014 USENIX Annual Technical Conference (USENIX ATC 14) (2014), pp. 305\u2013319"},{"key":"126_CR19","first-page":"297","volume-title":"18th USENIX Conference on File and Storage Technologies (FAST 20)","author":"Z. Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Z. Wang, T. Li, H. Wang, A. Shao, Y. Bai, S. Cai, Z. Xu, D. Wang, {CRaft}: an erasure-coding-supported version of raft for reducing storage cost and network cost, in 18th USENIX Conference on File and Storage Technologies (FAST 20) (2020), pp. 297\u2013308"},{"key":"126_CR20","unstructured":"K. Dai, Design of optimized log replication distributed consensus algorithm olr-raft based on raft. PhD thesis, Master\u2019s thesis, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (2017)"},{"key":"126_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCSNT47585.2019.8962479","volume-title":"2019 IEEE 7th International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology (ICCSNT)","author":"D. Tan","year":"2019","unstructured":"D. Tan, J. Hu, J. Wang, Vbbft-raft: an understandable blockchain consensus protocol with high performance, in 2019 IEEE 7th International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology (ICCSNT) (IEEE, 2019), pp. 111\u2013115"},{"issue":"1","key":"126_CR22","first-page":"93","volume":"38","author":"R. Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"R. Wang, L. Zhang, H. Zhou, Q. Xu, A Byzantine fault tolerance raft algorithm combines with bls signature. J. Appl. Sci. 38(1), 93\u2013104 (2020)","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"126_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPADS47876.2019.00152","volume-title":"2019 IEEE 25th International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Systems (ICPADS)","author":"R. Wang","year":"2019","unstructured":"R. Wang, L. Zhang, Q. Xu, H. Zhou, K-bucket based raft-like consensus algorithm for permissioned blockchain, in 2019 IEEE 25th International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Systems (ICPADS) (IEEE, 2019), pp. 996\u2013999"},{"key":"126_CR24","first-page":"1","volume-title":"2021 15th International Conference on Ubiquitous Information Management and Communication (IMCOM)","author":"S. Tian","year":"2021","unstructured":"S. Tian, Y. Liu, Y. Zhang, Y. Zhao, A Byzantine fault-tolerant raft algorithm combined with Schnorr signature, in 2021 15th International Conference on Ubiquitous Information Management and Communication (IMCOM) (IEEE, 2021), pp. 1\u20135"},{"key":"126_CR25","unstructured":"Y. Chen, P. Liu, W. Zhang, Raft consensus algorithm based on credit model in consortium blockchain. Wuhan Univ. J. Nat. Sci. 2(8) (2020)"},{"key":"126_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1109\/CACML55074.2022.00135","volume-title":"2022 Asia Conference on Algorithms, Computing and Machine Learning (CACML)","author":"Y. Wu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Y. Wu, Y. Wu, Y. Liu, T. Shi, The research of the optimized solutions to raft consensus algorithm based on a weighted pagerank algorithm, in 2022 Asia Conference on Algorithms, Computing and Machine Learning (CACML) (IEEE, 2022), pp. 784\u2013789"},{"issue":"1","key":"126_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.26599\/TST.2021.9010074","volume":"28","author":"X. Jiang","year":"2022","unstructured":"X. Jiang, A. Sun, Y. Sun, H. Luo, M. Guizani, A trust-based hierarchical consensus mechanism for consortium blockchain in smart grid. Tsinghua Sci. Technol. 28(1), 69\u201381 (2022)","journal-title":"Tsinghua Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Autonomous Intelligent Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43684-026-00126-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s43684-026-00126-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43684-026-00126-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T03:35:04Z","timestamp":1773113704000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s43684-026-00126-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["126"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43684-026-00126-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["2730-616X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2730-616X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"13 May 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 January 2026","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 January 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 March 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The research has no conflicts of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"4"}}