{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T15:56:08Z","timestamp":1774972568769,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771977600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":34,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Discov Internet Things"],"DOI":"10.1007\/s43926-026-00289-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T08:07:23Z","timestamp":1772006843000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Enhancing IoT data reliability with blockchain and federated learning in edge environments"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Eliabe N.","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"George P.","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Claudio Jr N.","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Maycon L. M.","family":"Peixoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Gustavo B.","family":"Figueiredo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Bruno P.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Cassio V. S.","family":"Prazeres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"289_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Prazeres C, Serrano M. Soft-iot: self-organizing fog of things. In: 2016 30th international conference on advanced information networking and applications workshops (WAINA), 2016;pp. 803\u2013808 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/WAINA.2016.153.","DOI":"10.1109\/WAINA.2016.153"},{"key":"289_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00607-024-01388-6","author":"H Larian","year":"2024","unstructured":"Larian H, Safi-Esfahani F. Intec: integrated things-edge computing: a framework for distributing machine learning pipelines in edge ai systems. Computing. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00607-024-01388-6.","journal-title":"Computing"},{"key":"289_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s42979-024-03235-z","author":"S Mishra","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mishra S, Sahoo S, Swain C. A systematic review on federated learning in edge-cloud continuum. SN Comput Sci. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42979-024-03235-z.","journal-title":"SN Comput Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"289_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1002\/itl2.512","volume":"7","author":"GP Pinto","year":"2024","unstructured":"Pinto GP, Prazeres C. Towards data privacy in a fog of things. Internet Technol Lett. 2024;7(6):512. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/itl2.512.","journal-title":"Internet Technol Lett"},{"key":"289_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1109\/SR.2025.3548547","volume":"2","author":"CN Silva","year":"2025","unstructured":"Silva CN, Prazeres CVS. Tiny federated learning for constrained sensors: a systematic literature review. IEEE Sensors Rev. 2025;2:17\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/SR.2025.3548547.","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors Rev"},{"issue":"4","key":"289_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70061","DOI":"10.1002\/itl2.70061","volume":"8","author":"CJN Silva","year":"2025","unstructured":"Silva CJN, Peixoto MLM, Figueiredo GB, Prazeres CVS. Tinyfed: Lightweight federated learning for constrained iot devices. Internet Technol Lett. 2025;8(4):70061. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/itl2.70061.","journal-title":"Internet Technol Lett"},{"key":"289_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/app14051807","author":"Z Yang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yang Z, Liu Y, Jin X, Luo X, Xu Y, Li M, et al. Bdida-iot: A blockchain-based decentralized identity architecture enhances the efficiency of iot data flow. Appl Sci. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app14051807.","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"289_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2569","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3297395","volume":"25","author":"H Xu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xu H, Wu J, Pan Q, Guan X, Guizani M. A survey on digital twin for industrial internet of things: applications, technologies and tools. IEEE Commun Surv Tutor. 2023;25(4):2569\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/COMST.2023.3297395.","journal-title":"IEEE Commun Surv Tutor"},{"issue":"1","key":"289_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1186\/s13677-022-00377-4","volume":"11","author":"G Bao","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bao G, Guo P. Federated learning in cloud-edge collaborative architecture: key technologies, applications and challenges. J Cloud Comput. 2022;11(1):94. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13677-022-00377-4.","journal-title":"J Cloud Comput"},{"key":"289_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Samaniego M, Deters R. Digital twins and blockchain for iot management. In: Proceedings of the 5th ACM international symposium on blockchain and secure critical infrastructure. ASIA CCS23, 2023;pp. 64\u201374. ACM. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3594556.3594611 .","DOI":"10.1145\/3594556.3594611"},{"key":"289_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2024.04.011","volume":"158","author":"S Cu\u00f1at Negueroles","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cu\u00f1at Negueroles S, Reinosa Sim\u00f3n R, Juli\u00e1n M, Belsa A, Lacalle I, S-Juli\u00e1n R, et al. blockchain-based digital twin for iot deployments in logistics and transportation. Future Gener Comput Syst. 2024;158:73\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.future.2024.04.011.","journal-title":"Future Gener Comput Syst"},{"key":"289_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jii.2024.100747","volume":"43","author":"F Khalifa","year":"2025","unstructured":"Khalifa F, Marzouk M. Integrated blockchain and digital twin framework for sustainable building energy management. J Ind Inf Integr. 2025;43:100747. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jii.2024.100747.","journal-title":"J Ind Inf Integr"},{"key":"289_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csa.2024.100064","volume":"3","author":"SM Hosseini Bamakan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hosseini Bamakan SM, Banaeian Far S. Distributed and trustworthy digital twin platform based on blockchain and web3 technologies. Cyber Secur Appl. 2025;3:100064. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.csa.2024.100064.","journal-title":"Cyber Secur Appl"},{"key":"289_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iot.2023.100698","volume":"22","author":"A Rizwan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rizwan A, Ahmad R, Khan AN, Xu R, Kim DH. Intelligent digital twin for federated learning in aiot networks. Internet of Things. 2023;22:100698. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.iot.2023.100698.","journal-title":"Internet of Things"},{"key":"289_CR15","unstructured":"Czekster RM, Perez AG, Kavakli-Thorne M, Nasri SAEM, Shaikh S. Cyber-physical and business perspectives using Federated Digital Twins in multinational and multimodal transportation systems 2024. https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2410.08479."},{"key":"289_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/math12162469","author":"X Sheng","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sheng X, Zhou Y, Cui X. Graph neural network based asynchronous federated learning for digital twin-driven distributed multi-agent dynamical systems. Mathematics. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/math12162469.","journal-title":"Mathematics"},{"issue":"4","key":"289_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2276","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3015772","volume":"8","author":"Y Lu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lu Y, Huang X, Zhang K, Maharjan S, Zhang Y. Communication-efficient federated learning and permissioned blockchain for digital twin edge networks. IEEE Internet Things J. 2021;8(4):2276\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2020.3015772.","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J"},{"issue":"7","key":"289_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5098","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2020.3017668","volume":"17","author":"Y Lu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lu Y, Huang X, Zhang K, Maharjan S, Zhang Y. Low-latency federated learning and blockchain for edge association in digital twin empowered 6g networks. IEEE Trans Industr Inf. 2021;17(7):5098\u2013107. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TII.2020.3017668.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Industr Inf"},{"issue":"12","key":"289_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8485","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2021.3075706","volume":"17","author":"MHu Rehman","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rehman MHu, Dirir AM, Salah K, Damiani E, Svetinovic D. Trustfed: A framework for fair and trustworthy cross-device federated learning in iiot. IEEE Trans Ind Inf. 2021;17(12):8485\u201394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TII.2021.3075706.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Ind Inf"},{"issue":"24","key":"289_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21266","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3282899","volume":"10","author":"C Mazzocca","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mazzocca C, Romandini N, Mendula M, Montanari R, Bellavista P. Truflaas: Trustworthy federated learning as a service. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023;10(24):21266\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3282899.","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J"},{"key":"289_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2024.06.035","volume":"160","author":"Z Cheng","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cheng Z, Liu Y, Wu C, Pan Y, Zhao L, Deng X, et al. Decentralized iot data sharing: a blockchain-based federated learning approach with joint optimizations for efficiency and privacy. Future Gener Comput Syst. 2024;160:547\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.future.2024.06.035.","journal-title":"Future Gener Comput Syst"},{"key":"289_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Moudoud H, Cherkaoui S. Toward secure and private federated learning for iot using blockchain. In: GLOBECOM 2022 - 2022 IEEE global communications conference, 2022;pp. 4316\u20134321 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/GLOBECOM48099.2022.10000623.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOBECOM48099.2022.10000623"},{"key":"289_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Geng T, Liu J, Huang C-T. A privacy-preserving federated learning framework for iot environment based on secure multi-party computation. In: 2024 IEEE annual congress on artificial intelligence of things (AIoT), 2024;pp. 117\u2013122 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/AIoT63253.2024.00032.","DOI":"10.1109\/AIoT63253.2024.00032"},{"key":"289_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"El\u00a0Houda ZA, Moudoud H, Brik B, Khoukhi L. Securing federated learning through blockchain and explainable ai for robust intrusion detection in iot networks. In: IEEE INFOCOM 2023 - IEEE conference on computer communications workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS), 2023;pp. 1\u20136 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/INFOCOMWKSHPS57453.2023.10225769.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOMWKSHPS57453.2023.10225769"},{"key":"289_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang S, Chen C, Han B, Zhu J. A trusted and decentralized federated learning framework for iot devices in smart city. In: 2024 IEEE international conferences on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE green computing and communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical & Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData) and IEEE Congress on Cybermatics, 2024;pp. 31\u201337 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/iThings-GreenCom-CPSCom-SmartData-Cybermatics62450.2024.00029.","DOI":"10.1109\/iThings-GreenCom-CPSCom-SmartData-Cybermatics62450.2024.00029"},{"issue":"2","key":"289_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1703","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2022.3170348","volume":"19","author":"AP Kalapaaking","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kalapaaking AP, Khalil I, Rahman MS, Atiquzzaman M, Yi X, Almashor M. Blockchain-based federated learning with secure aggregation in trusted execution environment for internet-of-things. IEEE Trans Industr Inf. 2023;19(2):1703\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TII.2022.3170348.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Industr Inf"},{"issue":"3","key":"289_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1686","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2020.2986444","volume":"22","author":"F Hussain","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hussain F, Hussain R, Hassan SA, Hossain E. Machine learning in iot security: current solutions and future challenges. IEEE Commun Surv Tutor. 2020;22(3):1686\u2013721. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/COMST.2020.2986444.","journal-title":"IEEE Commun Surv Tutor"},{"key":"289_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhang X, Li F, Zhang Z, Li Q, Wang C, Wu J. Enabling execution assurance of federated learning at untrusted participants. In: IEEE INFOCOM 2020 - IEEE conference on computer communications, 2020;pp. 1877\u20131886 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/INFOCOM41043.2020.9155414.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM41043.2020.9155414"},{"issue":"10","key":"289_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14229","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2024.3524632","volume":"12","author":"B Han","year":"2025","unstructured":"Han B, Li B, Jurdak R, Zhang P, Zhang H, Feng P, et al. Pbfl: A privacy-preserving blockchain-based federated learning framework with homomorphic encryption and single masking. IEEE Internet Things J. 2025;12(10):14229\u201343. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2024.3524632.","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J"},{"issue":"6","key":"289_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2019.2921755","volume":"24","author":"H Kim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kim H, Park J, Bennis M, Kim S-L. Blockchained on-device federated learning. IEEE Commun Lett. 2020;24(6):1279\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/LCOMM.2019.2921755.","journal-title":"IEEE Commun Lett"},{"key":"289_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2025.104456","volume":"154","author":"M Waqdan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Waqdan M, Louafi H, Mouhoub M. Security risk assessment in iot environments: a taxonomy and survey. Comput Secur. 2025;154:104456. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cose.2025.104456.","journal-title":"Comput Secur"},{"key":"289_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Batista E, Andrade L, Dias R, Andrade A, Figueiredo G, Prazeres C. Characterization and modeling of iot data traffic in the fog of things paradigm. In: 2018 IEEE 17th international symposium on network computing and applications (NCA), 2018;pp. 1\u20138 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/NCA.2018.8548340.","DOI":"10.1109\/NCA.2018.8548340"},{"key":"289_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Batista E, Mello B, Silva E, Can\u00e1rio JP, Rios R, Dustdar S, Figueiredo G, Prazeres C. A new intelligent scheduler to improve reactive openflow communication in sdn-based iot data streams. Discover Internet of Things, 2024;1\u201323 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43926-024-00068-3.","DOI":"10.1007\/s43926-024-00068-3"},{"key":"289_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.101958","volume":"97","author":"AS Patil","year":"2020","unstructured":"Patil AS, Hamza R, Hassan A, Jiang N, Yan H, Li J. Efficient privacy-preserving authentication protocol using pufs with blockchain smart contracts. Comput Secur. 2020;97:101958.","journal-title":"Comput Secur"},{"key":"289_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sultan ABM, Mehmood S, Zahid H. Man in the middle attack detection for mqtt based iot devices using different machine learning algorithms. In: 2022 2nd international conference on artificial intelligence (ICAI), 2022;pp. 118\u2013121 . https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICAI55435.2022.9773590.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAI55435.2022.9773590"},{"key":"289_CR36","unstructured":"N-able B. SHA-256 Algorithm Overview. Dispon\u00edvel na Internet em https:\/\/www.n-able.com\/blog\/sha-256-encryption#:\u00a0:text=The%20SHA%2D256%20algorithm%20is,that%20is%20256%20bits%20long. 2019."},{"key":"289_CR37","unstructured":"Madden S. Intel Lab Data. http:\/\/db.csail.mit.edu\/labdata\/labdata.html. Online; accessed May, 2024, 2004."},{"issue":"3","key":"289_CR38","first-page":"21","volume":"10","author":"S Samonas","year":"2014","unstructured":"Samonas S, Coss D. The cia strikes back: redefining confidentiality, integrity and availability in security. J Inf Syst Secur. 2014;10(3):21\u201345.","journal-title":"J Inf Syst Secur"}],"container-title":["Discover Internet of Things"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s43926-026-00289-8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43926-026-00289-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s43926-026-00289-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T13:55:44Z","timestamp":1774965344000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s43926-026-00289-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["289"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s43926-026-00289-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["2730-7239"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2730-7239","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 June 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no Conflict of interest.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Compeing interests"}}],"article-number":"40"}}