{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T23:58:12Z","timestamp":1771459092036,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]],"date-time":"2025-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747785600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]],"date-time":"2025-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747785600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Discov Artif Intell"],"DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-025-00323-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]],"date-time":"2025-05-21T18:11:54Z","timestamp":1747851114000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Advancements and limitations of LLMs in replicating human color-word associations"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Makoto","family":"Fukushima","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Shusuke","family":"Eshita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Hiroshige","family":"Fukuhara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"323_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jones C, Bergen B. Does GPT-4 Pass the Turing Test? arXiv 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arxiv.2310.20216.","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2310.20216"},{"key":"323_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2302.02083","author":"M Kosinski","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kosinski M. Evaluating large language models in theory of mind tasks. Arxiv. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arxiv.2302.02083.","journal-title":"Arxiv"},{"key":"323_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2218523120","volume":"120","author":"M Binz","year":"2023","unstructured":"Binz M, Schulz E. Using cognitive psychology to understand GPT-3. Proc National Acad Sci. 2023;120: e2218523120.","journal-title":"Proc National Acad Sci"},{"key":"323_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-8070.2013.01761.x","volume":"32","author":"E Adams","year":"2013","unstructured":"Adams E. The elements and principles of design: a baseline study. Int J Art Des Educ. 2013;32:157\u201375.","journal-title":"Int J Art Des Educ"},{"key":"323_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1002\/col.22188","volume":"43","author":"V Bonnardel","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bonnardel V, Beniwal S, Dubey N, Pande M, Bimler D. Gender difference in color preference across cultures: an archetypal pattern modulated by a female cultural stereotype. Color Res Appl. 2018;43:209\u201323.","journal-title":"Color Res Appl"},{"key":"323_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1002\/col.20010","volume":"29","author":"L Ou","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ou L, Luo MR, Woodcock A, Wright A. A study of colour emotion and colour preference. Part I: colour emotions for single colours. Color Res Appl. 2004;29:232\u201340.","journal-title":"Color Res Appl"},{"key":"323_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fukushima, M., Kitahara, T., Eshita, S. & Fukuhara, H. Analysis of relationships among color, word, and shape: evaluating its utility for the design process. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of JSAI 1J4GS9a04-1J4GS9a04 (2021) https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11517\/pjsai.jsai2021.0_1j4gs9a04.","DOI":"10.11517\/pjsai.jsai2021.0_1j4gs9a04"},{"key":"323_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1002\/col.5080060210","volume":"6","author":"S Kobayashi","year":"1981","unstructured":"Kobayashi S. The aim and method of the color image scale. Color Res Appl. 1981;6:93\u2013107.","journal-title":"Color Res Appl"},{"key":"323_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3571816","volume":"30","author":"L Xu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xu L, Park SJ, Lee S. Color2Vec: web-based modeling of word-color association with sociocultural contexts. ACM Trans Comput Hum Interact. 2023;30:1\u201329.","journal-title":"ACM Trans Comput Hum Interact."},{"key":"323_CR10","first-page":"204166952211318","volume":"13","author":"H Komatsu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Komatsu H, Maeno A, Watanabe E. Origin of the ease of association of color names: comparison between humans and AI. Percept. 2022;13:20416695221131830.","journal-title":"Percept"},{"key":"323_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15917","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-65604-1","volume":"14","author":"G Kawakita","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kawakita G, Zeleznikow-Johnston A, Tsuchiya N, Oizumi M. Gromov-Wasserstein unsupervised alignment reveals structural correspondences between the color similarity structures of humans and large language models. Sci Rep. 2024;14:15917.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"323_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Marjieh R, Sucholutsky I, Rijn P van, Jacoby, N. & Griffiths TL. Large language models predict human sensory judgments across six modalities. arXiv 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arxiv.2302.01308.","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2302.01308"},{"key":"323_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"OpenAI et al. GPT-4 Technical Report. arXiv 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arxiv.2303.08774.","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2303.08774"},{"key":"323_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1163\/22134808-00002457","volume":"27","author":"DZ Shermer","year":"2014","unstructured":"Shermer DZ, Levitan CA. Red hot: the crossmodal effect of color intensity on perceived piquancy. Multisensory Res. 2014;27:207\u201323.","journal-title":"Multisensory Res"},{"key":"323_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.3390\/foods7090154","volume":"7","author":"U Hoppu","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hoppu U, Puputti S, Aisala H, Laaksonen O, Sandell M. Individual differences in the perception of color solutions. Foods. 2018;7:154.","journal-title":"Foods"},{"key":"323_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.findings-emnlp.102","volume":"2023","author":"P Loyola","year":"2023","unstructured":"Loyola P, Marrese-Taylor E, Hoyos-Idrobo A. Perceptual structure in the absence of grounding: the impact of abstractedness and subjectivity in color language for LLMs. Find Assoc Comput Linguistics EMNLP. 2023;2023:1536\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2023.findings-emnlp.102.","journal-title":"Find Assoc Comput Linguistics EMNLP"},{"key":"323_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Salewski L, Alaniz S, Rio-Torto I, Schulz E. Akata Z. In-context impersonation reveals large language models\u2019 strengths and biases. arXiv 2023 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arxiv.2305.14930.","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2305.14930"},{"key":"323_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e48002","DOI":"10.2196\/48002","volume":"9","author":"S Takagi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Takagi S, Watari T, Erabi A, Sakaguchi K. Performance of GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 on the Japanese Medical licensing examination: comparison study. JMIR M\u00e9d Educ. 2023;9:e48002.","journal-title":"JMIR M\u00e9d Educ."},{"key":"323_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/52202","volume":"9","author":"T Watari","year":"2023","unstructured":"Watari T, et al. Performance comparison of ChatGPT-4 and Japanese medical residents in the general medicine in-training examination: comparison study. JMIR M\u00e9d Educ. 2023;9: e52202.","journal-title":"JMIR M\u00e9d Educ"},{"key":"323_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11604-024-01633-0","author":"T Oura","year":"2024","unstructured":"Oura T, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of vision-language models on Japanese diagnostic radiology, nuclear medicine, and interventional radiology specialty board examinations. Jpn J Radiol. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11604-024-01633-0.","journal-title":"Jpn J Radiol"},{"key":"323_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.11517\/pjsai.JSAI2024.0_2Q5IS105","author":"M Fukushima","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fukushima M, Kanada S, Eshita S, Fukuhara H. Evaluating color-word association in LLM. Proc Ann Conf JSAI. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11517\/pjsai.JSAI2024.0_2Q5IS105.","journal-title":"Proc Ann Conf JSAI"}],"container-title":["Discover Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00323-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00323-8\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00323-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]],"date-time":"2025-05-21T18:11:57Z","timestamp":1747851117000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00323-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["323"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00323-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["2731-0809"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2731-0809","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"28 February 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 May 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 May 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study analyzed anonymized data from a web-based survey conducted by a professional survey company. As this research utilized existing de-identified data where participants had consented to research participation by providing written informed consent before completing the questionnaire, and did not involve any interventions or collection of sensitive personal information, ethical committee approval was not required. This was confirmed by Sony Life Ethics Committee.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"64"}}