{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T22:16:58Z","timestamp":1776377818552,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]],"date-time":"2025-07-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753920000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]],"date-time":"2025-07-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753920000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004263","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["60222.671.50490.22122021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["60222.671.50490.22122021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004263","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004263","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["60222.671.50490.22122021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["60222.671.50490.22122021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004263","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004263","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["60222.671.50490.22122021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["60222.671.50490.22122021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004263","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004263","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo \u00e0 Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["60222.671.50490.22122021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["60222.671.50490.22122021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004263","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Discov Artif Intell"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>This article examines the legal, technical, and ethical challenges of generative AI, focusing on the governance of training data and copyright compliance. It addresses the growing tension between AI development and the rights of content creators, particularly regarding the unauthorized use of copyrighted material for model training. By analyzing regulatory frameworks in the United States, European Union, Japan, and Brazil, the study highlights how existing mechanisms\u2013such as fair use, text and data mining (TDM) exceptions, and hybrid models\u2013remain inadequate to resolve the opacity and legal uncertainty surrounding AI training datasets. Drawing on insights from Henderson, Yu, Narayanan, and Kapoor, the paper demonstrates that the absence of transparency not only compromises legal accountability but also exacerbates epistemic risks and distributive asymmetries. Adopting a comparative legal-philosophical methodology, the study proposes governance solutions centered on mandatory transparency obligations, ethical compensation schemes for rights holders, and robust audit mechanisms. These recommendations aim to balance innovation incentives with fairness, sustainability, and the protection of intellectual property in the AI-driven economy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-025-00379-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]],"date-time":"2025-07-31T17:20:37Z","timestamp":1753982437000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Technical, legal, and ethical challenges of generative artificial intelligence: an analysis of the governance of training data and copyrights"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1993-1422","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcelo","family":"Pasetti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9806-1172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James William","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5633-6094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas Kluge","family":"Corr\u00eaa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9241-1031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nythamar","family":"de Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2254-5266","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camila Palhares","family":"Barbosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"379_CR1","unstructured":"Autoridade Nacional de Prote\u00e7\u00e3o de Dados (ANPD). Anpd Determines Precautionary Suspension of Personal Data Processing for Training Meta\u2019s AI. ANPD Official Website, July 2024. News article published on July 2, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barros AM (2024) The copyright law and works generated by artificial intelligence. Revista Cient\u00edfica do UBM 26, 50 (April 2024), pp. 128\u2013138.","DOI":"10.52397\/rcubm.v26i50.1806"},{"key":"379_CR3","unstructured":"Bipartisan Policy Center. Legal challenges against generative AI: Key takeaways, January 2024. Accessed on May 25, 2025."},{"key":"379_CR4","unstructured":"Bloomberg Law. OpenAI faces early appeal in first AI copyright suit from coders. In: Bloomberg law (2024). Accessed on May 23, 2025."},{"key":"379_CR5","unstructured":"Bommasani R, Klyman K, Zhang D, Liang P. Do foundation model providers comply with the draft EU AI act?, 2023. Published on June 15, 2023."},{"key":"379_CR6","unstructured":"Brazilian Federal Senate. Bill no. 2338, of 2023: Establishes General Rules for the Development, Implementation, and Responsible Use of Artificial Intelligence Systems in Brazil. Senado Federal do Brasil, May 2023. Introduced by Senator Rodrigo Pacheco (PSD\/MG); approved by the Senate on December 26, 2024, and forwarded to the Chamber of Deputies on March 17, 2025."},{"key":"379_CR7","unstructured":"California State Legislature. Assembly bill no. 2013: Generative Artificial Intelligence: Training Data Transparency. California Legislative Information, September 2024. Chapter 817, Statutes of 2024. Approved by Governor Gavin Newsom on September 28, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR8","unstructured":"Chari BR, McKinney SA, Greenstein GR, De\u00a0Boel L, Mithal M, Geirhofer S, O\u2019Brien M. Do\u2019s and don\u2019ts for developing, extending, and using generative AI models. In: Wilson Sonsini insights. 2023. Published on May 2, 2023."},{"key":"379_CR9","unstructured":"Chmielinski K, Newman S, Kranzinger CN, Hind M, Vaughan JW, Mitchell M, Stoyanovich J, McMillan-Major A, McReynolds E, Esfahany K, Gray ML, Chang A, Hudson M. The CLeAR Documentation framework for AI transparency: recommendations for practitioners and context for policymakers. harvard kennedy school shorenstein center discussion paper, April 2024."},{"key":"379_CR10","unstructured":"Corr\u00eaa NK, M\u00f6nig JM. Catalog of general ethical requirements for AI certification, August 2024. Whitepaper\u2014deliverable from the flagship project \"Zertifizierte KI\"."},{"issue":"2","key":"379_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.58875\/GUYG6120","volume":"40","author":"K Crawford","year":"2024","unstructured":"Crawford K, Schultz J. Generative AI is a crisis for copyright law. Issues Sci Technol. 2024;40(2):79\u201380.","journal-title":"Issues Sci Technol"},{"key":"379_CR12","unstructured":"Digital Public Goods Alliance. Exploring ai systems as digital public goods: Core considerations, 2023. COI: 20.500.12592\/kc3kd2."},{"key":"379_CR13","unstructured":"European Commission. Living Guidelines on the Responsible Use of Generative AI in Research, March 2024. Published on March 20, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR14","unstructured":"European Commission. On boosting startups and innovation in trustworthy Artificial Intelligence, January 2024. Published on January 24, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR15","unstructured":"European Union. Regulation (EU) 2024\/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 on Artificial Intelligence (AI Act). EUR-Lex, 2024. Available at EUR-Lex. Accessed on 2025-05-23."},{"key":"379_CR16","volume-title":"A \u00c9tica da Intelig\u00eancia Artificial","author":"L Floridi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Floridi L. A \u00c9tica da Intelig\u00eancia Artificial. Porto Alegre: EDIPUCRS; 2021."},{"key":"379_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franceschelli G, Musolesi M. Copyright in generative deep learning. In: Data & Policy 4. 2022.","DOI":"10.1017\/dap.2022.10"},{"key":"379_CR18","unstructured":"Gomes SE. Bill no. 2.338, of 2023. Accessed on may 26, 2024. Accessed on 26 May 2024."},{"key":"379_CR19","unstructured":"Guha N, Lawrence C, Gailmard LA, Rodolfa K, Surani F, Bommasani R, Raji I, Cu\u00e9llar M-F, Honigsberg C, Liang P, Ho DE. AI regulation has its own alignment problem: the technical and institutional feasibility of disclosure, registration, licensing, and auditing. In: George washington law review, forthcoming. 2023."},{"key":"379_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/8975.001.0001","volume-title":"The machine question: critical perspectives on AI, robots, and ethics","author":"DJ Gunkel","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gunkel DJ. The machine question: critical perspectives on AI, robots, and ethics. Cambridge: MIT Press; 2012."},{"key":"379_CR21","unstructured":"Harris L, Zhu L. Generative artificial intelligence and data privacy: a primer; 2023."},{"key":"379_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henderson P, Li X, Jurafsky D, Hashimoto T, Lemley MA, Liang P. Foundation models and fair use. In: Stanford law and economics Olin working paper No. 584, March 2023.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4404340"},{"key":"379_CR23","unstructured":"House of Lords Communications and Digital Committee. Large language models and generative AI: Chapter 8\u2014Copyright. 1st Report of Session 2023\u201324, HL Paper 54, February 2024."},{"key":"379_CR24","unstructured":"Huet E. AI certification program verifies systems are fairly trained. In: The seattle times 2024."},{"key":"379_CR25","unstructured":"Information Commissioner\u2019s Office. Generative AI first call for evidence: the lawful basis for web scraping to train generative AI models, January 2024. Accessed on May 23, 2025."},{"key":"379_CR26","unstructured":"Jahner K. AI copyright bill thrills artists. Developers call it unworkable. In: Bloomberg law (April 2024). Published on April 25, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR27","unstructured":"Japan Copyright Office, Agency for Cultural Affairs. General understanding on AI and copyright in Japan\u2014overview. In: Legal subcommittee under the copyright subdivision of the cultural council, May 2024. Accessed on May 23, 2025."},{"key":"379_CR28","unstructured":"Kang C. Reporting on AI and public policy from Washington. In: The New York times (January 2024). Published on 2024."},{"key":"379_CR29","unstructured":"Kaplan J, McCandlish S, Henighan T, Brown TB, Chess B, Child R, Gray S, Radford A, Wu J, Amodei D. Scaling laws for neural language models, 2020."},{"issue":"4","key":"379_CR30","first-page":"743","volume":"99","author":"MA Lemley","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lemley MA, Casey B. Fair learning. Texas Law Rev. 2021;99(4):743\u201385 (Available at Texas Law Review. Accessed on 2024.).","journal-title":"Texas Law Rev"},{"key":"379_CR31","unstructured":"Library of Congress Copyright Office. Copyright registration guidance: works containing material generated by artificial intelligence. Federal Register, Vol. 88, Number 51, Rules and regulations, March 2023. Statement of Policy. Effective March 16, 2023."},{"issue":"1","key":"379_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1007\/s40319-023-01419-3","volume":"55","author":"T Margoni","year":"2024","unstructured":"Margoni T, Kretschmer M, Oruc P. Copyright law and the lifecycle of machine learning models. IIC. 2024;55(1):110\u201338.","journal-title":"IIC"},{"key":"379_CR33","unstructured":"Metz C, Kang C, Frenkel S, Thompson SA, Grant N. How tech giants cut corners to harvest data for AI. In: The New York times (April 2024). Updated April 8, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR34","unstructured":"Morrone,M. Copyright law is AI\u2019s 2024 battlefield. In: Axios (January 2024). Published on January 2, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR35","unstructured":"Narayanan A, Kapoor S. Generative AI companies must publish transparency reports, June 2023. Published on June 26, 2023."},{"key":"379_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Novelli C, Casolari F, Hacker P, Spedicato G, Floridi L. Generative AI in EU law: liability. Privacy: Intellectual Property, and Cybersecurity; 2024.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4821952"},{"key":"379_CR37","unstructured":"Park S, Albert K. A researcher\u2019s guide to some legal risks of security research. Cyberlaw Clinic, Harvard Law School, August 2024. Version 2, published August 2024."},{"key":"379_CR38","unstructured":"Poritz I. OpenAI\u2019s legal woes driven by unclear mesh of web-scraping laws. In: Bloomberg law (July 2023). Published on July 5, 2023."},{"key":"379_CR39","first-page":"2","volume":"61","author":"M Sag","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sag M. Copyright safety for generative AI. Houston Law Rev. 2023;61:2.","journal-title":"Houston Law Rev"},{"key":"379_CR40","unstructured":"Schuhmann C, Beaumont R, Vencu R, Gordon C, Wightman R, Cherti M, Coombes T, Katta A, Mullis C, Wortsman M, Schramowski P, Kundurthy S, Crowson K, Schmidt L, Kaczmarczyk R, Jitsev J. LAION-5B: an open large-scale dataset for training next generation image-text models, 2022."},{"key":"379_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Souza AR, Alvarenga LS, Bastos M. Text and data mining in health research: reflections on copyright. In: Cadernos de Sa\u00fade P\u00fablica 40, 5 (2024), e00169023. Published by Escola Nacional de Sa\u00fade P\u00fablica Sergio Arouca, Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Oswaldo Cruz.","DOI":"10.1590\/0102-311xpt169023"},{"key":"379_CR42","unstructured":"Stephens H. Japan\u2019s text and data mining (TDM) copyright exception for AI training: a needed and welcome clarification from the responsible agency, March 2024. Published on March 10, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR43","unstructured":"Tarkowski A, Warso Z. Commons-based data set governance for AI. In: Open future (March 2024). Available at Open Future. Accessed on May 23, 2025."},{"key":"379_CR44","unstructured":"Senate Brazilian Federal, Bill no. 4007, of 2020: Amends Law no. 9,610 of February 19, 1998, to Establish that the Use of Images of Works by Museums does not Infringe Copyright. Senado Federal do Brasil,. Introduced by Senator Chico Rodrigues (DEM\/RR); currently under review by the Senate\u2019s Committee on Science. Innovation, Communication and Informatics: Technology; July2020."},{"key":"379_CR45","unstructured":"Trindade\u00a0dos Reis ME. Copyright and the right of access to culture: elements of a conflict between rights. In: Caderno virtual 1, 58 (2024). Published by the Brazilian Institute of Education, Development and Research (IDP)."},{"key":"379_CR46","unstructured":"United Nations Children\u2019s Fund (UNICEF) Brazil. Universal declaration of human rights. UNICEF Brazil, 2024. Accessed on May 23, 2025."},{"key":"379_CR47","unstructured":"United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Recommendation on the ethics of artificial intelligence. UNESCO digital library, November 2021. Adopted by UNESCO\u2019s 193 Member States in November 2021."},{"key":"379_CR48","unstructured":"United States Congress. Title 17 of the United States Code: Copyrights, 1976. Public Law 94-553. Includes all amendments through December 23, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR49","unstructured":"US House of Representatives. H.r. 7913: generative AI copyright disclosure act of 2024. US congress, April 2024. Introduced by Rep. Adam B. Schiff [D-CA-28]; referred to the house committee on the judiciary."},{"key":"379_CR50","unstructured":"Vyas N, Kakade SM, Barak B. On provable copyright protection for generative models. In: Proceedings of the 40th international conference on machine learning (ICML 2023) , A.\u00a0Krause, E.\u00a0Brunskill, K.\u00a0Cho, B.\u00a0Engelhardt, S.\u00a0Sabato, and J.\u00a0Scarlett, Eds., vol.\u00a0202 of Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, PMLR; 2023. pp.\u00a035277\u201335299."},{"key":"379_CR51","unstructured":"Waber B, Fast NJ. Is GenAI\u2019s impact on productivity overblown? In: Harvard business review (January 2024). Published on January 8, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR52","unstructured":"Wodecki B. French MPs seek changes on EU copyright rules for AI. In: AI business (January 2024). Published on January 22, 2024."},{"key":"379_CR53","unstructured":"Yu PK. The future path of artificial intelligence and copyright law in the Asian Pacific. In: Computers and law 96 (2024). Forthcoming; Texas A &M University School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper No. 24-18."},{"key":"379_CR54","unstructured":"Zirpoli CT. Generative artificial intelligence and copyright law. Congressional research service, legal sidebar No. LSB10922, September 2023. Published on September 29, 2023."}],"container-title":["Discover Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00379-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00379-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00379-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,8]],"date-time":"2025-09-08T09:22:32Z","timestamp":1757323352000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00379-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["379"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00379-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2731-0809"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2731-0809","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 March 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 June 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"31 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Research involving human and\/or animals"}},{"value":"Informed consent is not applicable as no new human participants were involved in this study.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Informed consent"}},{"value":"The authors declare no conflict of interest.","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"193"}}