{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T08:39:40Z","timestamp":1765183180315,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765152000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765152000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Discov Artif Intell"],"DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-025-00716-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T03:51:41Z","timestamp":1765165901000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Philosophy in the age of rhetorical machines: three paradoxes of epistemic automation"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7331-6047","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonhard","family":"Sch\u00fctz-Bauer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"716_CR1","volume-title":"Traktat \u00fcber kritische Vernunft","author":"H Albert","year":"1991","unstructured":"Albert H. Traktat \u00fcber kritische Vernunft. T\u00fcbingen: Mohr-Siebeck; 1991."},{"key":"716_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berber Sardinha T. AI-generated vs human-authored texts: a multidimensional comparison. Applied Corpus Linguistics; 2024.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acorp.2023.100083"},{"key":"716_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198814719.001.0001","volume-title":"Fixing Language. An essay on conceptual engineering","author":"H Cappelen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Cappelen H. Fixing Language. An essay on conceptual engineering. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2018."},{"key":"716_CR4","first-page":"2","volume":"63","author":"D Chalmers","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chalmers D. What is conceptual engineering and what should it be? Inquiry. 2020;63:2\u201319.","journal-title":"Inquiry"},{"issue":"4","key":"716_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1111\/meta.12647","volume":"54","author":"G Clay","year":"2023","unstructured":"Clay G, Ontiveros C. Philosophers ought to develop, theorize about, and use philosophically relevant AI. Metaphilosophy. 2023;54(4):463\u201379.","journal-title":"Metaphilosophy"},{"key":"716_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/12549.001.0001","volume-title":"AI ethics","author":"M Coeckelbergh","year":"2020","unstructured":"Coeckelbergh M. AI ethics. Camebridge, MA: MIT Press; 2020."},{"key":"716_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.22329\/il.v40i2.6328","volume":"40","author":"C Dutilh Novaes","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dutilh Novaes C. The role of trust in argumentation. Informal Log. 2020;40:205\u201336.","journal-title":"Informal Log"},{"key":"716_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1007\/s10503-022-09583-5","volume":"36","author":"C Dutilh Novaes","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dutilh Novaes C. Two types of refutation in philosophical argumentation. Argumentation. 2022;36:493\u2013510.","journal-title":"Argumentation"},{"key":"716_CR9","unstructured":"Ernst G. Philosophie Als Lebenskunst. Antike Vorbilder, moderne perspektiven. Frankfurtam Main: Suhrkamp; 2016."},{"key":"716_CR10","first-page":"50","volume-title":"Knowledge, science and relativism. Philosophical papers","author":"P Feyerabend","year":"1999","unstructured":"Feyerabend P. Knowledge without foundations. Knowledge, science and relativism. Philosophical papers. Volume 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1999. pp. 50\u201377."},{"key":"716_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.22315\/ACD\/2020\/12","volume":"56","author":"G Fiore","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fiore G. Honesty, shame, courage: reconsidering the socratic Elenchus. Acta Classica Universitatis Scientiarum Debreceniensis. 2020;56:197\u2013206.","journal-title":"Acta Classica Universitatis Scientiarum Debreceniensis"},{"key":"716_CR12","volume-title":"Philosophy as a way of Life. Spiritual exercises from Socrates to Foucault","author":"P Hadot","year":"1995","unstructured":"Hadot P. Philosophy as a way of Life. Spiritual exercises from Socrates to Foucault. Molden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing; 1995."},{"key":"716_CR13","unstructured":"Khan A, Wang A, Hager S, Andrews N. 2025. Learning to generate text in arbitrary writing styles. Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University."},{"key":"716_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Metcalf R. 2023. What performative contradiction reveals: Plato\u2019s Theaetetus and gorgias on sophistry. Humanities;12(2).","DOI":"10.3390\/h12020033"},{"issue":"3","key":"716_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1080\/00323187.2024.2335471","volume":"75","author":"A Palmer","year":"2024","unstructured":"Palmer A, Spirling A. Large Language models can argue in convincing ways about Politics, but humans dislike AI authors: implications for governance. Political Sci. 2024;75(3):281\u201391.","journal-title":"Political Sci"},{"key":"716_CR16","unstructured":"Popper K. 1953. Science: Conjectures and refutations. Cambridge, s.n."},{"key":"716_CR17","first-page":"33","volume-title":"The myth of the Framework. In defense of science and rationality","author":"KR Popper","year":"1994","unstructured":"Popper KR. The myth of the framework. In: Notturno MA, editor. The myth of the Framework. In defense of science and rationality. London: Routledge; 1994. pp. 33\u201364."},{"key":"716_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rescala PD, Ribeiro MH, Hu T, West R. 2024. Can Language models recognize convincing arguments? Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP, pp. 8826\u20138837.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2024.findings-emnlp.515"},{"key":"716_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Salvi F, Horta Ribeiro M, Gallotti R, et al al. 2025. On the conversational persuasiveness of GPT-4. Nature. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41562-025-02194-6","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-025-02194-6"},{"key":"716_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shojaee* P, et al. The illusion of thinking: Understanding the strengths and limitations of reasoning models via the lens of problem complexity. Masc Learn Res. 2025.","DOI":"10.70777\/si.v2i6.15919"},{"issue":"1","key":"716_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-025-09712-5","volume":"35","author":"R Sparrow","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sparrow R, Flenady G. The testimony gap: machines and reasons. Mind Mach. 2025;35(1):1\u201316.","journal-title":"Mind Mach"},{"key":"716_CR22","volume-title":"Computing machinery and intelligence","author":"AM Turing","year":"2021","unstructured":"Turing AM. Computing machinery and intelligence. Ditzingen: Reclam; 2021."},{"key":"716_CR23","volume-title":"\u00dcber Gewi\u00dfheit Werkausgabe band 8 ed","author":"L Wittgenstein","year":"1984","unstructured":"Wittgenstein L. \u00dcber Gewi\u00dfheit. Werkausgabe band 8 ed. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp; 1984."}],"container-title":["Discover Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00716-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00716-9\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00716-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T08:34:45Z","timestamp":1765182885000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00716-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["716"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44163-025-00716-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2731-0809"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2731-0809"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 July 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 November 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 December 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Clinical trial number"}}],"article-number":"373"}}