{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T05:05:21Z","timestamp":1789621521089,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100031478","name":"NextGenerationEU","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["F53C22000740007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["F53C22000740007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100031478","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Discov Artif Intell"],"DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-026-02204-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T04:56:35Z","timestamp":1789620995000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A hybrid framework combining large language models and Shapley-based methods for explainable cyberbullying detection"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"6","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7995-8494","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Loseto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4162-957X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filippo","family":"Gramegna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2502-7467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnese","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7859-9602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Floriano","family":"Scioscia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2125-327X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michele","family":"Ruta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2204_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2024.101834","volume":"21","author":"Y Alomari","year":"2024","unstructured":"Alomari Y, And\u00f3 M. SHAP-based insights for aerospace PHM: Temporal feature importance, dependencies, robustness, and interaction analysis. Results in Eng. 2024;21:101834.","journal-title":"Results in Eng"},{"key":"2204_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayatollahi M, Jafari SM. Robustness vs. explainability stability: a comparative XAI analysis of machine learning models in financial market anomalies. Comput Econ 2026;1\u201322.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10614-025-11307-2"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"2204_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-023-10553-w","volume":"56","author":"V Balakrisnan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Balakrisnan V, Kaity M. Cyberbullying detection and machine learning: a systematic literature review. Artif Intell Rev. 2023;56(Suppl 1):1375\u2013416.","journal-title":"Artif Intell Rev"},{"key":"2204_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2021.115001","volume":"179","author":"A Bozyi\u011fit","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bozyi\u011fit A, Utku S, Nasibov E. Cyberbullying detection: Utilizing social media features. Expert Syst Appl. 2021;179:115001.","journal-title":"Expert Syst Appl"},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR5","first-page":"1","volume":"36","author":"M Calvano","year":"2026","unstructured":"Calvano M, Curci A, Desolda G, et al. Building symbiotic artificial intelligence: reviewing the AI Act for a human-centred. Principle-Based Framework Minds Mach. 2026;36(1):1.","journal-title":"Principle-Based Framework Minds Mach"},{"key":"2204_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93575","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3204171","volume":"10","author":"N Capuano","year":"2022","unstructured":"Capuano N, Fenza G, Loia V, et al. Explainable artificial intelligence in cybersecurity: A survey. IEEE Access. 2022;10:93575\u2013600.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"2204_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatzakou D, Kourtellis N, Blackburn J. Mean birds: detecting aggression and bullying on twitter. 2017. p. 13\u201322 In: Proceedings of the 2017 ACM on Web Science Conference.","DOI":"10.1145\/3091478.3091487"},{"issue":"3","key":"2204_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3343484","volume":"13","author":"D Chatzakou","year":"2019","unstructured":"Chatzakou D, Leontiadis I, Blackburn J, et al. Detecting cyberbullying and cyberaggression in social media. ACM Trans Web (TWEB). 2019;13(3):1\u201351.","journal-title":"ACM Trans Web (TWEB)"},{"issue":"3","key":"2204_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2024.104043","volume":"62","author":"S Cirillo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cirillo S, Desiato D, Polese G, et al. Exploring the ability of emerging large language models to detect cyberbullying in social posts through new prompt-based classification approaches. Inform Process Manag. 2025;62(3):104043.","journal-title":"Inform Process Manag"},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1186\/s40537-021-00550-7","volume":"8","author":"A Dewani","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dewani A, Memon MA, Bhatti S. Cyberbullying detection: advanced preprocessing techniques & deep learning architecture for roman urdu data. J Big Data. 2021;8(1):160.","journal-title":"J Big Data"},{"key":"2204_CR11","unstructured":"Dubey A, Jauhri A, Pandey A, et\u00a0al The llama 3 herd of models. arXiv e-prints pp arXiv\u20132407 2024."},{"key":"2204_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2023.108123","volume":"153","author":"N Ejaz","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ejaz N, Razi F, Choudhury S. Towards comprehensive cyberbullying detection: A dataset incorporating aggressive texts, repetition, peerness, and intent to harm. Comput Hum Behav. 2024;153:108123.","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav"},{"key":"2204_CR13","first-page":"25","volume-title":"2024 11th International Conference on Social Networks Analysis","author":"S Garc\u00eda-M\u00e9ndez","year":"2024","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-M\u00e9ndez S, De Arriba-P\u00e9rez F. Promoting security and trust on social networks: explainable cyberbullying detection using large language models in a stream-based machine learning framework. In: 2024 11th International Conference on Social Networks Analysis. Management and Security (SNAMS): IEEE; 2024. p. 25\u201332."},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-023-04542-0","volume":"23","author":"G Gohal","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gohal G, Alqassim A, Eltyeb E, et al. Prevalence and related risks of cyberbullying and its effects on adolescent. BMC Psychiatry. 2023;23(1):39.","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1007\/s13278-024-01291-0","volume":"14","author":"K Guti\u00e9rrez-Batista","year":"2024","unstructured":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Batista K, G\u00f3mez-S\u00e1nchez J, Fernandez-Basso C. Improving automatic cyberbullying detection in social network environments by fine-tuning a pre-trained sentence transformer language model. Soc Netw Anal Min. 2024;14(1):136.","journal-title":"Soc Netw Anal Min"},{"key":"2204_CR16","unstructured":"Hanu L, Unitary team (2020) Detoxify. Github. https:\/\/github.com\/unitaryai\/detoxify"},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s12559-023-10179-8","volume":"16","author":"V Hassija","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hassija V, Chamola V, Mahapatra A, et al. Interpreting black-box models: a review on explainable artificial intelligence. Cogn Comput. 2024;16(1):45\u201374.","journal-title":"Cogn Comput"},{"issue":"6","key":"2204_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3095","DOI":"10.3390\/smartcities7060121","volume":"7","author":"S Ieva","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ieva S, Loconte D, Loseto G, et al. A retrieval-augmented generation approach for data-driven energy infrastructure digital twins. Smart Cities. 2024;7(6):3095\u2013120.","journal-title":"Smart Cities"},{"issue":"9","key":"2204_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2696","DOI":"10.3390\/s25092696","volume":"25","author":"S Ieva","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ieva S, Bilenchi I, Gramegna F, et al. Enhancing last-mile logistics: AI-driven fleet optimization, mixed reality, and large language model assistants for warehouse operations. Sensors. 2025;25(9):2696.","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"4","key":"2204_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.9734\/BJAST\/2015\/14975","volume":"7","author":"A Joshi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Joshi A, Kale S, Chandel S, et al. Likert scale: explored and explained. British J Appl Sci Technol. 2015;7(4):396.","journal-title":"British J Appl Sci Technol"},{"issue":"2","key":"2204_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.54569\/aair.1206144","volume":"3","author":"\u00c7 Ko\u00e7ak","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ko\u00e7ak \u00c7, Yi\u011fit T, Bilen M. Creating a New dataset for the classification of cyber bullying. Adv Artific Intell Res. 2023;3(2):45\u201353.","journal-title":"Adv Artific Intell Res"},{"issue":"22","key":"2204_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10706","DOI":"10.3390\/app112210706","volume":"11","author":"M Lepe-Fa\u00fandez","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lepe-Fa\u00fandez M, Segura-Navarrete A, Vidal-Castro C, et al. Detecting aggressiveness in tweets: A hybrid model for detecting cyberbullying in the spanish language. Appl Sci. 2021;11(22):10706.","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"key":"2204_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loconte D, Ieva S, Mascellaro G. On-device explainable artificial intelligence for the semantic web of everything. Fut Gene Comput Syst p 108310. 2025.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2025.108310"},{"key":"2204_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahmud T, Ptaszynski M, Masui F. Leveraging explainable AI and sarcasm features for improved cyberbullying detection in multilingual settings. In: 2024 IEEE Digital Platforms and Societal Harms (DPSH). IEEE; 2024. p. 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.1109\/DPSH60098.2024.10774626"},{"key":"2204_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michalowski M, Wilk S, Bauer JM. Manually-curated versus LLM-generated explanations for complex patient cases: an exploratory study with physicians. In: International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Medicine. Springer; 2024. p. 313\u201323.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-66535-6_33"},{"issue":"5","key":"2204_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3503","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-021-10088-y","volume":"55","author":"D Minh","year":"2022","unstructured":"Minh D, Wang HX, Li YF, et al. Explainable artificial intelligence: a comprehensive review. Artif Intell Rev. 2022;55(5):3503\u201368.","journal-title":"Artif Intell Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-025-00577-2","volume":"5","author":"GM Mohiuddin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mohiuddin GM, Sayeed MS, Yeng OL. Deep learning models for culturally aware cyberbullying detection in Muslim societies: a systematic review. Disc Artific Intell. 2025;5(1):322.","journal-title":"Disc Artific Intell"},{"key":"2204_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nannini L. XAI: regulatory and ethical aspects. In: Explainable AI for Communications and Networking. Elsevier, p 181\u2013207 2025.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-44-329135-7.00020-5"},{"issue":"13s","key":"2204_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3583558","volume":"55","author":"M Nauta","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nauta M, Trienes J, Pathak S, et al. From anecdotal evidence to quantitative evaluation methods: a systematic review on evaluating explainable AI. ACM Comput Surv. 2023;55(13s):1\u201342.","journal-title":"ACM Comput Surv"},{"key":"2204_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1490022","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1490022","volume":"16","author":"J Ni","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ni J, Fu H, Zhu Y, et al. Social media usage and cyberbullying: the moderating role of tie strength. Front Psychol. 2025;16:1490022.","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"2204_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsis.2024.101885","volume":"34","author":"E Papagiannidis","year":"2025","unstructured":"Papagiannidis E, Mikalef P, Conboy K. Responsible artificial intelligence governance: a review and research framework. J Strateg Inf Syst. 2025;34(2):101885.","journal-title":"J Strateg Inf Syst"},{"issue":"3","key":"2204_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1007\/s12530-021-09403-3","volume":"13","author":"A Pazienza","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pazienza A, Anglani R, Fasciano C, et al. Evolving and explainable clinical risk assessment at the edge. Evol Syst. 2022;13(3):403\u201322.","journal-title":"Evol Syst"},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-024-00118-3","volume":"4","author":"S Rawas","year":"2024","unstructured":"Rawas S. AI: the future of humanity. Disc Artific Intell. 2024;4(1):25.","journal-title":"Disc Artific Intell"},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-025-00318-5","volume":"5","author":"S Reynaud","year":"2025","unstructured":"Reynaud S, Roxin A. Review of eXplainable artificial intelligence for cybersecurity systems. Disc Artific Intell. 2025;5(1):78.","journal-title":"Disc Artific Intell"},{"key":"2204_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rozemberczki B, Watson L, Bayer P. The Shapley Value in Machine Learning. In: The 31st International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence and the 25th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence, International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence Organization. 2022. p. 5572\u20139.","DOI":"10.24963\/ijcai.2022\/778"},{"key":"2204_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salawu S, Lumsden J, He Y. A large-scale english multi-label Twitter dataset for cyberbullying and online abuse detection. In: The 5th Workshop on Online Abuse and Harms. Association for Computational Linguistics; 2021:146\u201356.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2021.woah-1.16"},{"issue":"1","key":"2204_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-024-00129-0","volume":"4","author":"IH Sarker","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sarker IH. LLM potentiality and awareness: a position paper from the perspective of trustworthy and responsible AI modeling. Disc Artific Intell. 2024;4(1):40.","journal-title":"Disc Artific Intell"},{"issue":"5","key":"2204_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6293","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-023-12064-1","volume":"29","author":"FB Shaikh","year":"2024","unstructured":"Shaikh FB, Ayyasamy RK, Balakrishnan V, et al. Cyberbullying attitude, intention and behaviour among Malaysian tertiary students-A two stage SEM-ANN approach. Educ Inf Technol. 2024;29(5):6293\u2013317.","journal-title":"Educ Inf Technol"},{"key":"2204_CR39","unstructured":"Statista (2025) Number of social network users worldwide as in 2025, by region (in millions). Tech. rep., Statista, May 19, 2025, https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/454772\/number-social-media-user-worldwide-region\/"},{"key":"2204_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55533","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3275130","volume":"11","author":"TH Teng","year":"2023","unstructured":"Teng TH, Varathan KD. Cyberbullying detection in social networks: a comparison between machine learning and transfer learning approaches. IEEE Access. 2023;11:55533\u201360.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"issue":"4","key":"2204_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1007\/s10579-020-09488-3","volume":"54","author":"D Van Bruwaene","year":"2020","unstructured":"Van Bruwaene D, Huang Q, Inkpen D. A multi-platform dataset for detecting cyberbullying in social media. Lang Resour Eval. 2020;54(4):851\u201374.","journal-title":"Lang Resour Eval"},{"key":"2204_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2022.101152","volume":"46","author":"M Vismara","year":"2022","unstructured":"Vismara M, Girone N, Conti D, et al. The current status of cyberbullying research: a short review of the literature. Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2022;46:101152.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"key":"2204_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2025","DOI":"10.1016\/S1574-0005(02)03016-3","volume":"3","author":"E Winter","year":"2002","unstructured":"Winter E. The Shapley value. Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Appl. 2002;3:2025\u201354.","journal-title":"Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Appl"},{"key":"2204_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang K, Kizilcec R. Anonymity in social media: Effects of content controversiality and social endorsement on sharing behavior. In: Proceedings of the international AAAI conference on web and social media. 2014:643\u20136.","DOI":"10.1609\/icwsm.v8i1.14573"},{"key":"2204_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93104","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3204051","volume":"10","author":"Z Zhang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhang Z, Al Hamadi H, Damiani E, et al. Explainable artificial intelligence applications in cyber security: State-of-the-art in research. IEEE Access. 2022;10:93104\u201339.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["Discover Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44163-026-02204-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44163-026-02204-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44163-026-02204-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T04:56:42Z","timestamp":1789621002000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44163-026-02204-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["2204"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44163-026-02204-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["2731-0809"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2731-0809","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"assertion":[{"value":"24 March 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 September 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 September 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Not applicable","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Giuseppe Loseto and Filippo Gramegna declare they are Editorial Board Members of Discover Artificial Intelligence and confirm that they were not involved in the handling or decision-making of their own submission.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All authors confirm that they have read and understood the journal policies and that the submission of this manuscript fully complies with those guidelines.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"1158"}}