{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T12:00:02Z","timestamp":1771502402704,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770508800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771459200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":11,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int J Comput Intell Syst"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Rapid growth of electric bikes demands fast-charging systems that are efficient, stable, and capable of operating under varying load and voltage conditions. However, existing multi-level DC-DC converters and control strategies often suffer from high current ripple, voltage imbalance, and limited dynamic performance, restricting their suitability for large-scale fast-charging deployment. In this research, optimized deep learning-based multilevel DC-DC converters has been proposed for fast charging of electric bikes. The proposed system employs Harmony Search Algorithm (HSA) for tuning PI controller to finds the best PI gains globally which minimizes the steady state error. However, PI controller is inherently linear, it cannot fully handle the nonlinear and dynamic behaviour of a multilevel DC\u2013DC converter. To address this limitation, Levenberg\u2013Marquardt (LM) based Deep Neural Network (DNN) is used to learn nonlinear relationship between the instantaneous voltage error, the change in voltage error, the PI control signal, actual load voltage and generates optimal modulation index while minimizing the mean square error. The proposed method outperforms existing converters in terms of voltage ripple, charging time, and efficiency, according to simulation in MATLAB\/Simulink and experimental validation. The proposed DNN-HSA converter consistently achieves 2.5%, 6.7%, 10.9% and 14.8% higher efficiency compared to existing PI-MPC, MPC, VP-MPC, and multi-level DC\/DC converters.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s44196-026-01157-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T14:03:56Z","timestamp":1770559436000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Optimized Deep Learning-Based Multilevel DC-DC Converter for Fast Charging of Electric Bikes"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Jawahar","family":"Marimuthu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Edward Rajan","family":"Samuel Nadar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"1157_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1007\/s43236-023-00721-0","volume":"24","author":"J Choi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Choi, J., Bak, Y.: Dynamic characteristic improvement of battery chargers for personal mobility devices using sliding mode control. J. Power Electron. 24(1), 140\u2013146 (2024)","journal-title":"J. Power Electron."},{"key":"1157_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hammami, M., Viatkin, A., Ricco, M., Grandi, G.: A dc\/dc fast charger for electric vehicles with minimum input\/output ripple based on multiphase interleaved converters. In: 2019 International Conference on Clean Electrical Power (ICCEP), pp. 187\u2013192. (2019)","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCEP.2019.8890200"},{"issue":"8","key":"1157_CR3","first-page":"8","volume":"9","author":"P Deepa","year":"2022","unstructured":"Deepa, P., Rajakumar, S., Shermila, P.J., Devi, E.A., Prince, M.E., Malar, A.J.G.: New hybrid Cuk-Landsman high gain DC-DC converter modelling and analysis. Power. 9(8), 8\u201316 (2022)","journal-title":"Power"},{"issue":"8","key":"1157_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.3390\/en12081569","volume":"12","author":"S Chakraborty","year":"2019","unstructured":"Chakraborty, S., Vu, H.N., Hasan, M.M., Tran, D.D., Baghdadi, M.E., Hegazy, O.: DC-DC converter topologies for electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and fast charging stations: state of the art and future trends. Energies. 12(8), 1569 (2019)","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"1157_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40753","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3166935","volume":"10","author":"M Safayatullah","year":"2022","unstructured":"Safayatullah, M., Elrais, M.T., Ghosh, S., Rezaii, R., Batarseh, I.: A comprehensive review of power converter topologies and control methods for electric vehicle fast charging applications. IEEE Access. 10, 40753\u201340793 (2022)","journal-title":"IEEE Access."},{"issue":"9","key":"1157_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asej.2023.102391","volume":"14","author":"Y Yasa","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yasa, Y.: A system efficiency improvement of DC fast-chargers in electric vehicle applications: bypassing second-stage full-bridge DC-DC converter in high-voltage charging levels. Ain Shams Eng. J. 14(9), 102391 (2023)","journal-title":"Ain Shams Eng. J."},{"issue":"4","key":"1157_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3026","DOI":"10.3390\/su15043026","volume":"15","author":"MA Elkeiy","year":"2023","unstructured":"Elkeiy, M.A., Abdelaziz, Y.N., Hamad, M.S., Abdel-Khalik, A.S., Abdelrahem, M.: Multiport DC-DC converter with differential power processing for fast EV charging stations. Sustainability. 15(4), 3026 (2023)","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"1157_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89570","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2891632","volume":"7","author":"A Ahilan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ahilan, A., Manogaran, G., Raja, C., Kadry, S., Kumar, S.N., Kumar, C.A., Jarin, T., Krishnamoorthy, S., Kumar, P.M., Babu, G.C., Murugan, N.S.: Segmentation by fractional order darwinian particle swarm optimization based multilevel thresholding and improved lossless prediction based compression algorithm for medical images. IEEE Access. 7, 89570\u201389580 (2019)","journal-title":"IEEE Access."},{"issue":"5","key":"1157_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1049\/rpg2.12042","volume":"15","author":"F Ero\u01e7lu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ero\u01e7lu, F., Kurto\u01e7lu, M., Vural, A.M.: Bidirectional DC\u2013DC converter based multilevel battery storage systems for electric vehicle and large-scale grid applications: a critical review considering different topologies, state\u2010of\u2010charge balancing and future trends. IET Renew. Power Gen. 15(5), 915\u2013938 (2021)","journal-title":"IET Renew. Power Gen."},{"issue":"7","key":"1157_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12071581","volume":"12","author":"K Zhou","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhou, K., Wu, Y., Wu, X., Sun, Y., Teng, D., Liu, Y.: Research and development review of power converter topologies and control technology for electric vehicle fast-charging systems. Electronics. 12(7), 1581 (2023)","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"issue":"1","key":"1157_CR11","first-page":"012017","volume":"2570","author":"V Manoj","year":"2023","unstructured":"Manoj, V., Pilla, R., Sura, S.R.: A comprehensive analysis of power converter topologies and control methods for extremely fast charging of electric vehicles. J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 2570(1), 012017 (2023)","journal-title":"J. Phys. : Conf. Ser."},{"key":"1157_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atanalian, S., Al-Haddad, K., Zgheib, R., Kanaan, H.Y.: A review on electric vehicles battery chargers and ac\/dc converters for fast charging stations. In: 2021 IEEE 3rd International Multidisciplinary Conference on Engineering Technology (IMCET), pp. 43\u201348. IEEE (2021)","DOI":"10.1109\/IMCET53404.2021.9665577"},{"key":"1157_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bento, F., Cardoso, A.J.M.: Performance assessment of two alternative DC-DC converter topologies for EV charging applications. In: 2020 Fifteenth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), pp. 1\u20136. IEEE (2020)","DOI":"10.1109\/EVER48776.2020.9243075"},{"issue":"4","key":"1157_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2683","DOI":"10.1007\/s42835-023-01375-5","volume":"18","author":"G Isha","year":"2023","unstructured":"Isha, G., Jagatheeswari, P.: Jasmine Gnana Malar, Elitist Harris HAWKS optimized voltage stability enhancement in radial distribution system. J. Electr. Eng. Technol. 18(4), 2683\u20132693 (2023)","journal-title":"J. Electr. Eng. Technol."},{"issue":"18","key":"1157_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4949","DOI":"10.3390\/en13184949","volume":"13","author":"M ElMenshawy","year":"2020","unstructured":"ElMenshawy, M., Massoud, A.: Hybrid multimodule DC-DC converters for ultrafast electric vehicle chargers. Energies. 13(18), 4949 (2020)","journal-title":"Energies"},{"issue":"12","key":"1157_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2037","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9122037","volume":"9","author":"JH Lee","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lee, J.H., Park, S.J., Lim, S.K.: Improvement of multilevel DC\/DC converter for e-mobility charging station. Electronics. 9(12), 2037 (2020)","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"1157_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48774","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2977663","volume":"8","author":"SK Lim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lim, S.K., Lee, H.S., Cha, H.R., Park, S.J.: Multi-level DC\/DC converter for e-mobility charging stations. IEEE Access. 8, 48774\u201348783 (2020)","journal-title":"IEEE Access."},{"key":"1157_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, H.S., Mohamed, I.S., Kauhaniemi, K., Liu, L.: Artificial neural network-based voltage control of DC\/DC converter for DC microgrid applications. In: 2021 6th IEEE Workshop on the Electronic Grid (eGRID), pp. 1\u20136. IEEE (2021)","DOI":"10.1109\/eGRID52793.2021.9662132"},{"issue":"1","key":"1157_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1109\/TTE.2021.3120032","volume":"8","author":"MR Khalid","year":"2021","unstructured":"Khalid, M.R., Alam, M.S., Krishnamurthy, M., Al-Ammar, E.A., Alrajhi, H., Asghar, M.S.J.: A multiphase AC\u2013DC converter with improved power quality for EV charging station. IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrific. 8(1), 909\u2013924 (2021)","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrific"},{"issue":"5","key":"1157_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5546","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2022.3168504","volume":"58","author":"V Rathore","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rathore, V., Reddy, S.R.P., Rajashekara, K.: An isolated multilevel DC\u2013DC converter topology with hybrid resonant switching for EV fast charging application. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 58(5), 5546\u20135557 (2022)","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"issue":"5","key":"1157_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6506","DOI":"10.1109\/TIA.2022.3185183","volume":"58","author":"V Rathore","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rathore, V., Rajashekara, K., Nayak, P., Ray, A.: A high-gain multilevel DC\u2013DC converter for interfacing electric vehicle battery and inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 58(5), 6506\u20136518 (2022)","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"issue":"19","key":"1157_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3444","DOI":"10.3390\/math10193444","volume":"10","author":"M Sadiq","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sadiq, M., Aragon, C.A., Terriche, Y., Ali, S.W., Su, C.L., Buzna, \u013d., Elsisi, M., Lee, C.H.: Continuous-control-set model predictive control for three-level DC\u2013DC converter with unbalanced loads in bipolar electric vehicle charging stations. Mathematics. 10(19), 3444 (2022)","journal-title":"Mathematics"},{"issue":"3","key":"1157_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1109\/TCE.2023.3277877","volume":"69","author":"R Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang, R., Li, J., Sun, Q., Zhang, H., Wei, Z., Wang, P.: Energy transfer converter between electric vehicles: DC\u2013DC converter based on virtual power model predictive control. IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron. 69(3), 556\u2013567 (2023)","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron."},{"key":"1157_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25835","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3366523","volume":"12","author":"G Moon","year":"2024","unstructured":"Moon, G., Bak, Y.: Dynamic characteristic improvement of battery charger for PMDs using a model predictive control. IEEE Access. 12, 25835\u201325843 (2024)","journal-title":"IEEE Access."},{"key":"1157_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guler, N., Bayhan, S., Komurcugil, H.: Model predictive control method with auto-tuning weighting factor for bidirectional DC-DC battery chargers. In: 2024 IEEE 18th International Conference on Compatibility, Power Electronics and Power Engineering (CPE-POWERENG), pp. 1\u20136 (2024)","DOI":"10.1109\/CPE-POWERENG60842.2024.10604348"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44196-026-01157-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44196-026-01157-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44196-026-01157-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T11:00:01Z","timestamp":1771498801000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44196-026-01157-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1157"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44196-026-01157-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["1875-6883"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1875-6883","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"6 April 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 November 2025","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 January 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 February 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This paper has no conflict of interest for publishing.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"My research guide reviewed and ethically approved this manuscript for publishing in this journal.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical Approval"}},{"value":"This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Human and Animal Rights"}},{"value":"I certify that I have explained the nature and purpose of this study to the above-named individual, and I have discussed the potential benefits of this study participation. The questions the individual had about this study have been answered, and we will always be available to address future questions.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Informed Consent"}}],"article-number":"79"}}