{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T18:48:56Z","timestamp":1784659736314,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694476800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694476800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["DISO"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The European Union (EU) is in the middle of comprehensively regulating artificial intelligence (AI) through an effort known as the AI Act. Within the vast spectrum of issues under the Act\u2019s aegis, the treatment of technologies classified as general purpose AI systems (GPAIS) merits special consideration. Particularly, existing proposals to define GPAIS do not provide sufficient guidance to distinguish these systems from those designed to perform specific tasks, denominated as fixed-purpose. Thus, our working paper has three objectives: first, to highlight the variance and ambiguity in the interpretation of GPAIS in the literature; second, to examine the dimensions of the generality of purpose available to define GPAIS; lastly, to propose a functional definition of the term that facilitates its governance within the EU. Our intention with this piece is to offer policymakers an alternative perspective on GPAIS that improves the hard and soft law efforts to mitigate these systems\u2019 risks and protect the well-being and future of constituencies in the EU and globally.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s44206-023-00068-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T06:02:14Z","timestamp":1694498534000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["A Proposal for a Definition of General Purpose Artificial Intelligence Systems"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Carlos I.","family":"Gutierrez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony","family":"Aguirre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Risto","family":"Uuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claire C.","family":"Boine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1846-8907","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matija","family":"Franklin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"68_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.21300\/20.4.2019.415","volume":"20","author":"D Alderucci","year":"2019","unstructured":"Alderucci, D., & Sicker, D. (2019). Applying artificial intelligence to the patent system. Technology & Innovation, 20(4), 415\u2013425.","journal-title":"Technology & Innovation"},{"key":"68_CR2","unstructured":"Benifei, B., & Tudorache. D. (2022). Amendments 2356 - 2726: Draft report Brando Benifei, Drago\u015f Tudorache (PE731.563v01\u201300) harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (artificial intelligence act) and amending certain Union Legislative Acts. Available: https:\/\/artificialintelligenceact.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/AIA-IMCO-LIBE-Report-All-Amendments-14-June.pdf"},{"issue":"1","key":"68_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2012.12.003","volume":"57","author":"CC Bennett","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bennett, C. C., & Hauser, K. (2013). Artificial intelligence framework for simulating clinical decision-making: A Markov decision process approach. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 57(1), 9\u201319.","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Medicine"},{"key":"68_CR4","unstructured":"Bieger, J., Th\u00f3risson, K. R., Steunebrink, B. R., Thorarensen, T., & Sigurdardottir, J. S. (2016). Evaluation of general-purpose artificial intelligence: Why, what & how. Evaluating General-Purpose AI."},{"key":"68_CR5","unstructured":"Boine, C. (2022). L\u2019IA g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et la proposition de r\u00e8glement de la Commission europ\u00e9enne. Dalloz IP\/IT, 2022(2). Available: https:\/\/www.dalloz-revues.fr\/revues\/Dalloz_IP_IT-750.htm"},{"key":"68_CR6","unstructured":"Bommasani, R., et al. (2021). On the opportunities and risks of foundation models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2108.07258"},{"key":"68_CR7","unstructured":"Council of the European Union. (2021a). Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (artificial intelligence act) and amending certain Union legislative acts. Accessed: 27 Apr 2022. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX%3A52021PC0206"},{"key":"68_CR8","unstructured":"Council of the European Union. (2021b). Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (artificial intelligence act) and amending certain Union legislative acts - presidency compromise text. Accessed: 27 Apr 2022. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/data.consilium.europa.eu\/doc\/document\/ST-14278-2021-INIT\/en\/pdf"},{"key":"68_CR9","unstructured":"Council of the European Union. (2022a). Proposition de R\u00e8glement du Parlement europ\u00e9en et du Conseil \u00e9tablissant des r\u00e8gles harmonis\u00e9es concernant l\u2019intelligence artificielle (l\u00e9gislation sur l\u2019intelligence artificielle) et modifiant certains actes l\u00e9gislatifs de l\u2019Union- Text de compromis de la pr\u00e9sidence - Article 3, paragraphe 1 ter, Articles 4 bis \u00e0 4 quater, Annexe VI (3) et (4), consid\u00e9rant 12 bis bis. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/artificialintelligenceact.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/AIA-FRA-Art-34-13-May.pdf"},{"key":"68_CR10","unstructured":"Council of the European Union. (2022b). Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (artificial intelligence act) and amending certain Union legislative acts - General approach. Accessed: 12 May 2023. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/data.consilium.europa.eu\/doc\/document\/ST-14954-2022-INIT\/en\/pdf"},{"issue":"4","key":"68_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1963.1057864","volume":"9","author":"EA Feigenbaum","year":"1963","unstructured":"Feigenbaum, E. A. (1963). Artificial intelligence research. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 9(4), 248\u2013253.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Information Theory"},{"key":"68_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganguli, D., et al. (2022). Predictability and surprise in large generative models. Presented at the 2022 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, 1747\u20131764.","DOI":"10.1145\/3531146.3533229"},{"issue":"3","key":"68_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-016-9505-7","volume":"48","author":"J Hern\u00e1ndez-Orallo","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Orallo, J. (2017). Evaluation in artificial intelligence: From task-oriented to ability-oriented measurement. Artificial Intelligence Review, 48(3), 397\u2013447.","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"68_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-01997-7","volume":"11","author":"J Hern\u00e1ndez-Orallo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Orallo, J., Loe, B. S., Cheke, L., Mart\u00ednez-Plumed, F., & \u00d3 h\u00c9igeartaigh, S. (2021). General intelligence disentangled via a generality metric for natural and artificial intelligence. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1\u201316.","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"17","key":"68_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.119.012788","volume":"8","author":"N Kagiyama","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kagiyama, N., Shrestha, S., Farjo, P. D., & Sengupta, P. P. (2019). Artificial intelligence: Practical primer for clinical research in cardiovascular disease. Journal of the American Heart Association, 8(17), e012788.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Heart Association"},{"key":"68_CR16","unstructured":"Meltzer, J. P. (2018). The impact of artificial intelligence on international trade. Brookings Institution, Thursday, December, 13, 2016."},{"key":"68_CR17","unstructured":"Newell, A., Shaw, J. C., & Simon, H. A. (1959). Report on a general problem solving program. In IFIP Congress, Pittsburgh, PA p. 64."},{"issue":"4","key":"68_CR18","first-page":"7","volume":"4","author":"NJ Nilsson","year":"1983","unstructured":"Nilsson, N. J. (1983). Artificial intelligence prepares for 2001. AI Magazine, 4(4), 7\u20137.","journal-title":"AI Magazine"},{"issue":"4","key":"68_CR19","first-page":"68","volume":"26","author":"NJ Nilsson","year":"2005","unstructured":"Nilsson, N. J. (2005). Human-level artificial intelligence? Be serious! AI Magazine, 26(4), 68\u201368.","journal-title":"AI Magazine"},{"key":"68_CR20","unstructured":"OECD. (2022). OECD Framework for the classification of AI systems. [Online]. Available: https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/docserver\/cb6d9eca-en.pdf?expires=1658796936&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=ACF491EF5BF19D52416E1D95710F9F05"},{"key":"68_CR21","unstructured":"Reed, S., et al. (2022). A generalist agent. arXiv preprint arXiv:2205.06175"},{"issue":"3","key":"68_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1093\/oxrep\/grab013","volume":"37","author":"S Russell","year":"2021","unstructured":"Russell, S. (2021). The history and future of AI. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 37(3), 509\u2013520.","journal-title":"Oxford Review of Economic Policy"},{"issue":"7839","key":"68_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-03051-4","volume":"588","author":"J Schrittwieser","year":"2020","unstructured":"Schrittwieser, J., et al. (2020). Mastering atari, go, chess and shogi by planning with a learned model. Nature, 588(7839), 604\u2013609.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"68_CR24","unstructured":"Somers, J. (2018). How the artificial-intelligence program AlphaZero mastered its games. The New Yorker, 3."},{"key":"68_CR25","unstructured":"Strelkova, O., & Pasichnyk, O. (2017). Three Types of Artificial Intelligence; Khmelnitsky National University: Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine Teh, Nee-Joo. 2017. Artificial Intelligence in Canada."},{"key":"68_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szegedy, C. (2020). A promising path towards autoformalization and general artificial intelligence. In International Conference on Intelligent Computer Mathematics, Springer, pp. 3\u201320.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-53518-6_1"},{"key":"68_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Th\u00f3risson, K. R., Bieger, J., Thorarensen, T., Sigur\u00f0ard\u00f3ttir, J. S., & Steunebrink, B. R. (2016). Why artificial intelligence needs a task theory. Presented at the International Conference on Artificial General Intelligence, Springer, pp. 118\u2013128.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-41649-6_12"},{"key":"68_CR28","first-page":"83","volume":"1","author":"P Wang","year":"2004","unstructured":"Wang, P. (2004). Toward a unified artificial intelligence. In AAAI Technical Report, 1, 83.","journal-title":"In AAAI Technical Report"},{"key":"68_CR29","unstructured":"Wei, J., et al. (2022). Emergent abilities of large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2206.07682"}],"container-title":["Digital Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44206-023-00068-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44206-023-00068-w\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44206-023-00068-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,2]],"date-time":"2024-02-02T11:06:47Z","timestamp":1706872007000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44206-023-00068-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["68"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44206-023-00068-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["2731-4650","2731-4669"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2731-4650","type":"print"},{"value":"2731-4669","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 February 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 September 2023","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 September 2023","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"CG, AA, RU, and CB were working for the Future of Life Institute while writing this paper. MF was a PhD student at UCL while writing this paper.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}],"article-number":"36"}}