{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T21:34:52Z","timestamp":1776980092811,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]],"date-time":"2024-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721865600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]],"date-time":"2024-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721865600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003252","name":"Lund University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003252","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["DISO"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>In recent decades, the enforcement of European Union (EU) law has transitioned from being primarily the responsibility of Member States to becoming an increasingly shared or centralised task at the EU level. Drawing on the concept of <jats:italic>legal design patterns<\/jats:italic>, this article presents these two broadly understood enforcement approaches as decentralised and centralised enforcement patterns, and examines the AI Act through this conceptual lens. The objective of this exploration is to highlight that the choice of enforcement mechanisms for EU laws comes with different sets of challenges, in general, and to contribute to the understanding of the AI Act\u2019s enforcement structure, in particular. In this paper, we ground our analysis on the theoretical framework of legal design patterns in order to reduce the regulatory complexity into comparable problem-solving elements. Under this framework, we (1) examine the enforcement framework of the AI Act, and we (2) draw comparative lessons from the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), an EU legislation which is based on the largely decentralised enforcement model. On this basis, we (3) discuss some of the potential implications of the decentralised enforcement of the AI Act, and consider the possible reasons behind this choice of enforcement model.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s44206-024-00129-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]],"date-time":"2024-07-25T14:28:36Z","timestamp":1721917716000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Enforcement Design Patterns in EU Law: An Analysis of the AI Act"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"3","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7859-1111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kasia","family":"S\u00f6derlund","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Larsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"129_CR1","unstructured":"Access Now (2021). GDPR: Three years in, and its future and success are still up in the air. https:\/\/www.accessnow.org\/press-release\/gdpr-three-years\/"},{"key":"129_CR46","unstructured":"Alexander, C. (1979). The timeless way of building. Oxford University Press"},{"issue":"4","key":"129_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1017\/ERR.2023.37","volume":"14","author":"M Almada","year":"2023","unstructured":"Almada, M. (2023). Regulation by design and the governance of technological futures. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 14(4), 697\u2013709. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/ERR.2023.37","journal-title":"European Journal of Risk Regulation"},{"key":"129_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ACPROF:OSOBL\/9780199576081.001.0001","author":"R Baldwin","year":"2015","unstructured":"Baldwin, R., Cave, M., & Lodge, M. (2015).Understanding Regulation: Theory, Strategy, and Practice (2nd edn). Oxford University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ACPROF:OSOBL\/9780199576081.001.0001","journal-title":"Understanding Regulation"},{"key":"129_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bieber, R., & Maiani, F. (2014). Enhancing centralized enforcement of EU law: Pandora\u2019s toolbox? Common Market Law Review, 51(4). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.54648\/cola2014086","DOI":"10.54648\/cola2014086"},{"key":"129_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Brunschwig, C. R. (2021). Visual law and legal design: Questions and tentative answers. In Jusletter IT (Issue May). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.38023\/8b70bb88-de0c-4034-a54c-68409bb9549e","DOI":"10.38023\/8b70bb88-de0c-4034-a54c-68409bb9549e"},{"key":"129_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chiti, E. (2013). European agencies\u2019 rulemaking: Powers, procedures and assessment. European Law Journal, 19(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/eulj.12015","DOI":"10.1111\/eulj.12015"},{"key":"129_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chiti, E. (2021). The agencification process and the evolution of the EU administrative system. In The Evolution of EU Law. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780192846556.003.0005","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780192846556.003.0005"},{"key":"129_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Christensen, A. (1996). Skydd f\u00f6r etablerad position\u2013 ett normativt grundm\u00f6nster. Tidsskrift for Rettsvitenskap, 109(4). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18261\/issn1504-3096-1996-04-02","DOI":"10.18261\/issn1504-3096-1996-04-02"},{"key":"129_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/OSO\/9780198831655.003.0007","author":"P Craig","year":"2018","unstructured":"Craig, P. (2018). Agencies. EU Administrative Law. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/OSO\/9780198831655.003.0007","journal-title":"EU Administrative Law"},{"key":"129_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Craig, P., & de B\u00farca, G. (2013). EU law: Text, cases, and materials. In EU law: Text, cases, and materials. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/he\/9780199576999.001.0001","DOI":"10.1093\/he\/9780199576999.001.0001"},{"key":"129_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duijkersloot, T., & Widdershoven, D. (2023). Administratvie law enforcement of EU law. In M. Scholten (Ed.), Research handbook on the enforcement of EU law (pp. 38\u201355). Elgar.","DOI":"10.4337\/9781802208030.00011"},{"key":"129_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ebers, M., Hoch, V. R. S., Rosenkranz, F., Ruschemeier, H., & Steinr\u00f6tter, B. (2021). The European commission\u2019s proposal for an artificial intelligence act\u2014A critical assessment by members of the robotics and AI law society (RAILS). J, 4(4). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/j4040043","DOI":"10.3390\/j4040043"},{"issue":"1","key":"129_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1080\/1350176042000311925","volume":"12","author":"B Eberlein","year":"2005","unstructured":"Eberlein, B., & Grande, E. (2005). Beyond delegation: Transnational regulatory regimes and the EU regulatory state. Journal of European Public Policy, 12(1), 89\u2013112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1350176042000311925","journal-title":"Journal of European Public Policy"},{"key":"129_CR50","unstructured":"European Commission. (2021). Proposal for a Regulation laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence. https:\/\/digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu\/en\/library\/proposal-regulation-laying-down-harmonised-rules-artificial-intelligence"},{"key":"#cr-split#-129_CR51.1","unstructured":"European Commission. (2023). Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down additional procedural rules relating to the enforcement of Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-129_CR51.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2016\/679. https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=celex%3A52023PC0348"},{"key":"129_CR53","unstructured":"European Parliament. (2021). European Parliament resolution of 25 March 2021 on the Commission evaluation report on the implementation of the General Data Protection Regulation two years after its application (2020\/2717(RSP)). https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX%3A52021IP0111"},{"issue":"4","key":"129_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1017\/S0020589322000355","volume":"71","author":"G Gentile","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gentile, G., & Lynskey, O. (2022). Deficient by design? The transnational enforcement of the GDPR. International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 71(4), 799\u2013830. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0020589322000355","journal-title":"International & Comparative Law Quarterly"},{"key":"129_CR15","unstructured":"Gross, T. (2016). Control without command: Accountability mechanisms for the EU administration. https:\/\/heinonline-org.ludwig.lub.lu.se\/HOL\/Page?handle=hein.journals\/zorcht2016\u00f7=26"},{"key":"129_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Heidbreder, E. G. (2017). Strategies in multilevel policy implementation: Moving beyond the limited focus on compliance. Journal of European Public Policy, 24(9). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13501763.2017.1314540","DOI":"10.1080\/13501763.2017.1314540"},{"key":"129_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hyd\u00e9n, H. (2021). Sociology of law as the science of norms. In Sociology of law as the science of norms. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781003241928","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003241928"},{"key":"129_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaremba, U. (2023). European commission. In M. Scholten (Ed.), Research Handbook on the Enforcement of EU law (pp. 107\u2013151). Elgar Publishing","DOI":"10.4337\/9781802208030.00016"},{"key":"129_CR18","unstructured":"Joerges, C. (1999). EU committees: Social regulation, law and politics. \u2018Good Governance\u2019 through Comitology? 311\u2013338."},{"key":"129_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5040\/9781472563972.CH-010","author":"RD Kelemen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kelemen, R. D., & Menon, A. (2014). The politics of EC regulation. Better Regulation. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5040\/9781472563972.CH-010","journal-title":"Better Regulation"},{"issue":"5","key":"129_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1080\/01402382.2011.591076","volume":"34","author":"RD Kelemen","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kelemen, R. D., & Tarrant, A. D. (2011). The political foundations of the eurocracy. West European Politics, 34(5), 922\u2013947. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01402382.2011.591076","journal-title":"West European Politics"},{"key":"129_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3814234","author":"R Koulu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Koulu, R., Peters, A., & Pohle, J. (2021). Finding design patterns in law: An exploratory approach. SSRN Electronic Journal. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.3814234","journal-title":"SSRN Electronic Journal"},{"key":"129_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koulu, R., & Pohle, J. (2024). Legal design patterns: New tools for analysis and translations between law and technology. DISO, 3(22).","DOI":"10.1007\/s44206-024-00109-y"},{"key":"129_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"K\u00e4ll, J. (2022). Posthuman property and law: Commodification and control through information, smart spaces and artificial intelligence (1st ed.). Routledge. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781003139096","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003139096"},{"key":"129_CR23","unstructured":"Lessig, L. (1999). Code and other laws of cyberspace."},{"issue":"10","key":"129_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1080\/13501763.2022.2125046","volume":"29","author":"DS Martinsen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Martinsen, D. S., Mastenbroek, E., & Schrama, R. (2022). The power of \u2018weak\u2019 institutions: Assessing the EU\u2019s emerging institutional architecture for improving the implementation and enforcement of joint policies. Journal of European Public Policy, 29(10), 1529\u20131545. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13501763.2022.2125046","journal-title":"Journal of European Public Policy"},{"issue":"4","key":"129_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.21552\/edpl\/2023\/4\/12","volume":"9","author":"L Mustert","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mustert, L. (2023). The commission proposal for a new GDPR procedural regulation: Effective and protected enforcement ensured? European Data Protection Law Review, 9(4), 454\u2013464. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21552\/edpl\/2023\/4\/12","journal-title":"European Data Protection Law Review"},{"key":"129_CR45","unstructured":"Regulation. (2024\/1689). Regulation (EU) 2024\/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300\/2008, (EU) No 167\/2013, (EU) No 168\/2013, (EU) 2018\/858, (EU) 2018\/1139 and (EU) 2019\/2144 and Directives 2014\/90\/EU, (EU) 2016\/797 and (EU) 2020\/1828 (Artificial Intelligence Act). http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2024\/1689\/oj"},{"key":"129_CR52","unstructured":"Regulation (EU) 2016\/679. Regulation (EU) 2016\/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95\/46\/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) (Text with EEA relevance). http:\/\/data.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2016\/679\/oj"},{"key":"129_CR26","unstructured":"Rossi, A., Ducato, R., Haapio, H., Passera, S., & Palmirani, M. (2019). Legal design patterns: Towards a new language for legal information design. Jusletter IT."},{"key":"129_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/SSRN.2609777","author":"MU Scherer","year":"2015","unstructured":"Scherer, M. U. (2015). Regulating artificial intelligence systems: Risks, challenges, competencies, and strategies. SSRN Electronic Journal. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/SSRN.2609777","journal-title":"SSRN Electronic Journal"},{"key":"129_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Scholten, M. (2017). Mind the trend! Enforcement of EU law has been moving to \u2018Brussels.\u2019 Journal of European Public Policy, 24(9), 1348\u20131366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13501763.2017.1314538","DOI":"10.1080\/13501763.2017.1314538"},{"key":"129_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scholten, M. (2021a). EU (Shared) law enforcement. Who does what and how?.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429197819-2"},{"key":"129_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Scholten, M. (2021b). EU (shared) law enforcement: Who does what and how? EU Law Enforcement: The Evolution of Sanctioning Powers, 7\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9780429197819-2","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429197819-2"},{"key":"129_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scholten, M. (2023). EU enforcement agencies. In M. Scholten (Ed.), Research handbook on the enforcement of EU law (pp. 152\u2013184). Elgar Publishing.","DOI":"10.4337\/9781802208030.00019"},{"key":"129_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Scholten, M., & St\u00e4hler, L. (2023). Introduction to research handbook on the enforcement of EU law. In Research handbook on the enforcement of EU law. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4337\/9781802208030.00009","DOI":"10.4337\/9781802208030.00009"},{"key":"129_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13501763.2022.2147578","author":"I Sivan-Sevilla","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sivan-Sevilla, I. (2022). Varieties of enforcement strategies post-GDPR: A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) across data protection authorities. Journal of European Public Policy. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13501763.2022.2147578","journal-title":"Journal of European Public Policy"},{"key":"129_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"S\u00f6derlund, K., Engstr\u00f6m, E., Haresamudram, K., Larsson, S., & Strimling, P. (2024). Regulating high-reach AI: On transparency directions in the digital services act. Internet Policy Review, 13(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14763\/2024.1.1746","DOI":"10.14763\/2024.1.1746"},{"key":"129_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Stahl, B. C., Rodrigues, R., Santiago, N., & Macnish, K. (2022). A European Agency for Artificial Intelligence: Protecting fundamental rights and ethical values. Computer Law and Security Review, 45. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clsr.2022.105661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clsr.2022.105661"},{"key":"129_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Thomann, E., & Sager, F. (2017a). Moving beyond legal compliance: Innovative approaches to EU multilevel implementation. Journal of European Public Policy, 24(9). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13501763.2017.1314541","DOI":"10.1080\/13501763.2017.1314541"},{"key":"129_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Thomann, E., & Sager, F. (2017b). Toward a better understanding of implementation performance in the EU multilevel system. Journal of European Public Policy, 24(9). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13501763.2017.1314542","DOI":"10.1080\/13501763.2017.1314542"},{"key":"129_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.12942\/LREG-2014-1","volume":"9","author":"O Treib","year":"2014","unstructured":"Treib, O. (2014). Implementing and complying with EU governance outputs. Living Reviews in European Governance, 9, 1\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12942\/LREG-2014-1","journal-title":"Living Reviews in European Governance"},{"issue":"1","key":"129_CR38","first-page":"83","volume":"69","author":"A Tutt","year":"2017","unstructured":"Tutt, A. (2017). An FDA for algorithms. Administrative Law Review, 69(1), 83\u2013124. https:\/\/ludwig.lub.lu.se\/login?url=https:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx%3Fdirect=true%26AuthType=ip,uid%26db=edshol%26AN=edshol.hein.journals.admin69.7%26site=eds-live%26scope=site","journal-title":"Administrative Law Review"},{"key":"129_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"van Kreij, L. (2019). Towards a comprehensive framework for understanding EU enforcement regimes. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 10(3). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/err.2019.52","DOI":"10.1017\/err.2019.52"},{"key":"129_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Kreij, L. (2023). EU agencies or networks of national authorities. In M. Scholten (Ed.), Research handbook on the enforcement of EU law (pp. 167\u2013184). Elgar Publishing.","DOI":"10.4337\/9781802208030.00020"},{"issue":"4","key":"129_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.9785\/cri-2021-220402","volume":"22","author":"M Veale","year":"2021","unstructured":"Veale, M., & Borgesius, F. (2021). Demystifying the draft EU artificial intelligence act \u2014 analysing the good, the bad, and the unclear elements of the proposed approach. Computer Law Review International, 22(4), 97\u2013112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.9785\/cri-2021-220402","journal-title":"Computer Law Review International"},{"issue":"4","key":"129_CR42","first-page":"1","volume":"25","author":"WG Voss","year":"2021","unstructured":"Voss, W. G. (2021). AI act: The European union\u2019s proposed framework regulation for artificial intelligence governance. Journal of Internet Law, 25(4), 1\u201317.","journal-title":"Journal of Internet Law"},{"key":"129_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/SSRN.2377254","author":"K Yeung","year":"2014","unstructured":"Yeung, K. (2014). Design for regulation. SSRN Electronic Journal. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/SSRN.2377254","journal-title":"SSRN Electronic Journal"}],"container-title":["Digital Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44206-024-00129-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44206-024-00129-8\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44206-024-00129-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,8]],"date-time":"2024-10-08T09:11:11Z","timestamp":1728378671000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44206-024-00129-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["129"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44206-024-00129-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["2731-4650","2731-4669"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2731-4650","type":"print"},{"value":"2731-4669","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"1 November 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 July 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 July 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}],"article-number":"41"}}