{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,11]],"date-time":"2026-07-11T21:03:17Z","timestamp":1783803797887,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":169,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752451200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752451200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int J Netw Distrib Comput"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s44227-025-00060-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T17:20:57Z","timestamp":1752513657000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Quantum Internet: Technologies, Protocols, and Research Challenges"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4635-3237","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vinay","family":"Kumar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4503-4223","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudio","family":"Cicconetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4097-4064","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Conti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1694-612X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Passarella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"60_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nurhadi AI, Rachmana Syambas N (2018) Quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols: a survey. In: 2018 4th International Conference on Wireless and Telematics (ICWT), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/ICWT.2018.8527822"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3402192","volume":"53","author":"M Mehic","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mehic M et al (2020) Quantum key distribution: a networking perspective. ACM Comput Surv (CSUR) 53(5):1\u201341","journal-title":"ACM Comput Surv (CSUR)"},{"issue":"2","key":"60_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2022.3144219","volume":"24","author":"Y Cao","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cao Y et al (2022) The evolution of quantum key distribution networks: on the road to the qinternet. IEEE Commun Surv Tutorials 24(2):839\u2013894","journal-title":"IEEE Commun Surv Tutorials"},{"issue":"7671","key":"60_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1038\/nature23461","volume":"549","author":"DJ Bernstein","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bernstein DJ, Lange T (2017) Post-quantum cryptography. Nature 549(7671):188\u2013194","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"60_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Broadbent A, Fitzsimons J, Kashefi E (2009) Universal blind quantum computation. In: 2009 50th annual IEEE symposium on foundations of computer science, IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/FOCS.2009.36"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-017-0025-3","volume":"3","author":"JF Fitzsimons","year":"2017","unstructured":"Fitzsimons JF (2017) Private quantum computation: an introduction to blind quantum computing and related protocols. Npj Quantum Inf 3(1):23","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf"},{"key":"60_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ben-Or M, Hassidim A (2005) Fast quantum byzantine agreement. In: Proceedings of the thirty-seventh annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing","DOI":"10.1145\/1060590.1060662"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"012333","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.75.012333","volume":"75","author":"JA Vaccaro","year":"2007","unstructured":"Vaccaro JA, Spring J, Chefles A (2007) Quantum protocols for anonymous voting and surveying. Phys Rev A At Mol Opt Phys 75(1):012333","journal-title":"Phys Rev A At Mol Opt Phys"},{"issue":"2","key":"60_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"020325","DOI":"10.1103\/PRXQuantum.1.020325","volume":"1","author":"F Hahn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hahn F, de Jong J, Pappa A (2020) Anonymous quantum conference key agreement. PRX Quantum 1(2):020325","journal-title":"PRX Quantum"},{"issue":"11","key":"60_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2000025","DOI":"10.1002\/qute.202000025","volume":"3","author":"G Murta","year":"2020","unstructured":"Murta G et al (2020) Quantum conference key agreement: a review. Adv Quantum Technol 3(11):2000025","journal-title":"Adv Quantum Technol"},{"key":"60_CR11","unstructured":"Broadbent A, Islam R (2020) Quantum encryption with certified deletion. In: Theory of Cryptography: 18th International Conference, TCC 2020, Durham, NC, USA, November 16\u201319, 2020, Proceedings, Part III 18. Springer International Publishing"},{"key":"60_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11128-017-1528-8","volume":"16","author":"M Ganz","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ganz M (2017) Quantum leader election. Quantum Inf Process 16:1\u201317","journal-title":"Quantum Inf Process"},{"key":"60_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman MS, Hossam-E-Haider M (2019) Quantum IoT: a quantum approach in IoT security maintenance. In: 2019 International Conference on Robotics, Electrical and Signal Processing Techniques (ICREST), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/ICREST.2019.8644342"},{"issue":"4","key":"60_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1049\/qtc2.12069","volume":"4","author":"GG Rozenman","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rozenman GG et al (2023) The quantum internet: a synergy of quantum information technologies and 6G networks. IET Quantum Commun 4(4):147\u2013166","journal-title":"IET Quantum Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900092","volume":"34","author":"AS Cacciapuoti","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cacciapuoti AS et al (2019) Quantum internet: networking challenges in distributed quantum computing. IEEE Network 34(1):137\u2013143","journal-title":"IEEE Network"},{"key":"60_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caleffi M et al (2024) Distributed quantum computing: a survey. Comput Networks 110672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2024.110672"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-qtc.2020.0002","volume":"1","author":"D Cuomo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cuomo D, Caleffi M, Sara Cacciapuoti A (2020) Towards a distributed quantum computing ecosystem. IET Quantum Commun 1(1):3\u20138","journal-title":"IET Quantum Commun"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"035002","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.89.035002","volume":"89","author":"CL Degen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Degen CL, Reinhard F, Cappellaro P (2017) Quantum sensing. Rev Mod Phys 89(3):035002","journal-title":"Rev Mod Phys"},{"issue":"9","key":"60_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2006","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.85.2006","volume":"85","author":"IL Chuang","year":"2000","unstructured":"Chuang IL (2000) Quantum algorithm for distributed clock synchronization. Phys Rev Lett 85(9):2006","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"6539","key":"60_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abg1919","volume":"372","author":"M Pompili","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pompili M et al (2021) Realization of a multinode quantum network of remote solid-state qubits. Science 372(6539):259\u2013264","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"7917","key":"60_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04764-4","volume":"607","author":"T van Leent","year":"2022","unstructured":"van Leent T et al (2022) Entangling single atoms over 33 km telecom fibre. Nature 607(7917):69\u201373","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"050503","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.129.050503","volume":"129","author":"X-Y Luo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Luo X-Y et al (2022) Postselected entanglement between two atomic ensembles separated by 12.5 km. Phys Rev Lett 129(5):050503","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"050803","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.130.050803","volume":"130","author":"V Krutyanskiy","year":"2023","unstructured":"Krutyanskiy V et al (2023) Entanglement of trapped-ion qubits separated by 230 meters. Phys Rev Lett 130(5):050803","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"7670","key":"60_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/nature23655","volume":"549","author":"S-K Liao","year":"2017","unstructured":"Liao S-K et al (2017) Satellite-to-ground quantum key distribution. Nature 549(7670):43\u201347","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"030501","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.120.030501","volume":"120","author":"S-K Liao","year":"2018","unstructured":"Liao S-K et al (2018) Satellite-relayed intercontinental quantum network. Phys Rev Lett 120(3):030501","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"7841","key":"60_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-03093-8","volume":"589","author":"Y-A Chen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chen Y-A et al (2021) An integrated space-to-ground quantum communication network over 4,600 kilometres. Nature 589(7841):214\u2013219","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"60_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physrep.2019.10.001","volume":"831","author":"M Schlosshauer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Schlosshauer M (2019) Quantum decoherence. Phys Rep 831:1\u201357","journal-title":"Phys Rep"},{"issue":"5886","key":"60_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1038\/299802a0","volume":"299","author":"WK Wootters","year":"1982","unstructured":"Wootters WK, Zurek WH (1982) A single quantum cannot be cloned. Nature 299(5886):802\u2013803","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"18","key":"60_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1080\/09500340.2013.856482","volume":"60","author":"F Bussieres","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bussieres F et al (2013) Prospective applications of optical quantum memories. J Mod Opt 60(18):1519\u20131537","journal-title":"J Mod Opt"},{"issue":"20","key":"60_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1080\/09500340.2016.1148212","volume":"63","author":"K Heshami","year":"2016","unstructured":"Heshami K et al (2016) Quantum memories: emerging applications and recent advances. J Mod Opt 63(20):2005\u20132028","journal-title":"J Mod Opt"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1080\/00107514.2019.1667078","volume":"60","author":"J Roffe","year":"2019","unstructured":"Roffe J (2019) Quantum error correction: an introductory guide. Contemp Phys 60(3):226\u2013245","journal-title":"Contemp Phys"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250301","DOI":"10.1007\/s11433-022-2065-x","volume":"66","author":"P-S Yan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yan P-S et al (2023) Advances in quantum entanglement purification. Sci China Phys Mech Astronomy 66(5):250301","journal-title":"Sci China Phys Mech Astronomy"},{"issue":"6412","key":"60_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaam9288","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aam9288","volume":"362","author":"S Wehner","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wehner S, Elkouss D, Hanson R (2018) Quantum internet: a vision for the road ahead. Science 362(6412):eaam9288","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2200180","DOI":"10.1002\/qute.202200180","volume":"6","author":"F Dupuy","year":"2023","unstructured":"Dupuy F, Goursaud C, Guillemin F (2023) A survey of quantum entanglement routing protocols\u2014challenges for wide-area networks. Adv Quantum Technol 6(5):2200180","journal-title":"Adv Quantum Technol"},{"key":"60_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abane A et al (2024) Entanglement routing in quantum networks: a comprehensive survey. arXiv preprint arXiv:2408.01234","DOI":"10.1109\/TQE.2025.3541123"},{"key":"60_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2022.109092","volume":"213","author":"J Illiano","year":"2022","unstructured":"Illiano J et al (2022) Quantum internet protocol stack: a comprehensive survey. Comput Networks 213:109092","journal-title":"Comput Networks"},{"key":"60_CR37","unstructured":"Yuan L et al (2024) A survey of quantum internet protocols from a layered perspective. In: IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials"},{"key":"60_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bel O, Kiran M (2024) Simulators for quantum network modelling: a comprehensive review. arXiv preprint arXiv:2408.11993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2025.111204"},{"key":"60_CR39","volume-title":"Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications","author":"N Zettili","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zettili N (2009) Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications"},{"key":"60_CR40","volume-title":"Quantum computation and quantum information","author":"MA Nielsen","year":"2010","unstructured":"Nielsen MA, Chuang IL (2010) Quantum computation and quantum information. Cambridge University Press"},{"key":"60_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-0849-4_10","volume-title":"Bell\u2019s theorem, quantum theory and conceptions of the universe","author":"DM Greenberger","year":"1989","unstructured":"Greenberger DM, Horne MA, Zeilinger A (1989) Going beyond Bell\u2019s theorem. In: Bell\u2019s theorem, quantum theory and conceptions of the universe. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 69\u201372"},{"issue":"12","key":"60_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1119\/1.16243","volume":"58","author":"DM Greenberger","year":"1990","unstructured":"Greenberger DM et al (1990) Bell\u2019s theorem without inequalities. Am J Phys 58(12):1131\u20131143","journal-title":"Am J Phys"},{"issue":"6","key":"60_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"062314","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.62.062314","volume":"62","author":"W D\u00fcr","year":"2000","unstructured":"D\u00fcr W, Vidal G, Cirac JI (2000) Three qubits can be entangled in two inequivalent ways. Phys Rev A 62(6):062314","journal-title":"Phys Rev A"},{"issue":"11-12","key":"60_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.1080\/09500349708231877","volume":"44","author":"PG Kwiat","year":"1997","unstructured":"Kwiat PG (1997) Hyper-entangled states. J Mod Opt 44(11-12):2173\u20132184","journal-title":"J Mod Opt"},{"issue":"10","key":"60_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.47.777","volume":"47","author":"A Einstein","year":"1935","unstructured":"Einstein A, Podolsky B, Rosen N (1935) Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete? Physical Review 47(10):777","journal-title":"Physical Review"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysicsPhysiqueFizika.1.195","volume":"1","author":"JS Bell","year":"1964","unstructured":"Bell JS (1964) On the einstein podolsky rosen paradox. Physics Physique Fizika 1(3):195","journal-title":"Physics Physique Fizika"},{"issue":"13","key":"60_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1895","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.70.1895","volume":"70","author":"CH Bennett","year":"1993","unstructured":"Bennett CH et al (1993) Teleporting an unknown quantum state via dual classical and Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen channels. Phys Rev Lett 70(13):1895","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"key":"60_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kumar V et al (2025) Routing in quantum networks with end-to-end knowledge. IET Quantum Commun e70000. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1049\/qtc2.70000","DOI":"10.1049\/qtc2.70000"},{"issue":"8","key":"60_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1209\/0295-5075\/25\/8\/001","volume":"25","author":"H Weinfurter","year":"1994","unstructured":"Weinfurter H (1994) Experimental Bell-state analysis. Europhys Lett 25(8):559","journal-title":"Europhys Lett"},{"issue":"26","key":"60_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4287","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.71.4287","volume":"71","author":"M \u017bukowski","year":"1993","unstructured":"\u017bukowski M et al (1993) \u201cEvent-ready-detectors\u201d Bell experiment via entanglement swapping. Phys Rev Lett 71(26):4287","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"key":"60_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4277","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.40.4277","volume":"40","author":"RF Werner","year":"1989","unstructured":"Werner RF (1989) Quantum states with einstein-podolsky-rosen correlations admitting a hidden-variable model. Phys Rev A 40:4277","journal-title":"Phys Rev A"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.76.722","volume":"76","author":"CH Bennett","year":"1996","unstructured":"Bennett CH et al (1996) Purification of noisy entanglement and faithful teleportation via noisy channels. Phys Rev Lett 76(5):722","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.59.169","volume":"59","author":"W D\u00fcr","year":"1999","unstructured":"D\u00fcr W et al (1999) Quantum repeaters based on entanglement purification. Phys Rev A 59(1):169","journal-title":"Phys Rev A"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"032325","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.79.032325","volume":"79","author":"L Jiang","year":"2009","unstructured":"Jiang L et al (2009) Quantum repeater with encoding. Phys Rev A At Mol Opt Phys 79(3):032325","journal-title":"Phys Rev A At Mol Opt Phys"},{"issue":"6760","key":"60_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1038\/46503","volume":"402","author":"G Daniel","year":"1999","unstructured":"Daniel G, Chuang IL (1999) Demonstrating the viability of universal quantum computation using teleportation and single-qubit operations. Nature 402(6760):390\u2013393","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"052316","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.62.052316","volume":"62","author":"Z Xinlan","year":"2000","unstructured":"Xinlan Z, Leung DW, Chuang IL (2000) Methodology for quantum logic gate construction. Phys Rev A 62(5):052316","journal-title":"Phys Rev A"},{"issue":"8","key":"60_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"083015","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/18\/8\/083015","volume":"18","author":"C Jones","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jones C et al (2016) Design and analysis of communication protocols for quantum repeater networks. New J Phys 18(8):083015","journal-title":"New J Phys"},{"issue":"2","key":"60_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1145\/359340.359342","volume":"21","author":"RL Rivest","year":"1978","unstructured":"Rivest RL, Shamir A, Adleman L (1978) A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems. Commun ACM 21(2):120\u2013126","journal-title":"Commun ACM"},{"key":"60_CR59","first-page":"365","volume-title":"Democratizing cryptography: the work of Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman","author":"D Whitfield","year":"2022","unstructured":"Whitfield D, Martin EH (2022) New directions in cryptography. In: Democratizing cryptography: the work of Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, pp 365\u2013390"},{"key":"60_CR60","unstructured":"Miller VS (1985) Use of elliptic curves in cryptography. In: Conference on the theory and application of cryptographic techniques, Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer"},{"issue":"177","key":"60_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1090\/S0025-5718-1987-0866109-5","volume":"48","author":"N Koblitz","year":"1987","unstructured":"Koblitz N (1987) Elliptic curve cryptosystems. Math Comput 48(177):203\u2013209","journal-title":"Math Comput"},{"key":"60_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00fcnkel L et al (2024) Towards federated learning on the quantum internet. In: International Conference on Computational Science, Cham, Springer Nature Switzerland","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-63778-0_24"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/MIC.2021.3132688","volume":"26","author":"J Garcia-Alonso","year":"2021","unstructured":"Garcia-Alonso J et al. (2021) Quantum software as a service through a quantum API gateway. IEEE Internet Comput 26(1):34\u201341","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Comput"},{"issue":"4","key":"60_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1007\/s11219-022-09589-y","volume":"30","author":"E Moguel","year":"2022","unstructured":"Moguel E et al (2022) Quantum service-oriented computing: current landscape and challenges. Software Qual J 30(4):983\u20131002","journal-title":"Software Qual J"},{"issue":"7","key":"60_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"070503","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.109.070503","volume":"109","author":"D Gottesman","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gottesman D, Jennewein T, Croke S (2012) Longer-baseline telescopes using quantum repeaters. Phys Rev Lett 109(7):070503","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"052408","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.108.052408","volume":"108","author":"R Czupryniak","year":"2023","unstructured":"Czupryniak R et al. (2023) Optimal qubit circuits for quantum-enhanced telescopes. Phys Rev A 108(5):052408","journal-title":"Phys Rev A"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.81.1301","volume":"81","author":"V Scarani","year":"2009","unstructured":"Scarani V et al (2009) The security of practical quantum key distribution. Rev Mod Phys 81(3):1301\u20131350","journal-title":"Rev Mod Phys"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.3233\/JCS-2010-0373","volume":"18","author":"L Salvail","year":"2010","unstructured":"Salvail L et al (2010) Security of trusted repeater quantum key distribution networks. J Comput Secur 18(1):61\u201387","journal-title":"J Comput Secur"},{"issue":"13","key":"60_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130503","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.108.130503","volume":"108","author":"L Hoi-Kwong","year":"2012","unstructured":"Hoi-Kwong L, Curty M, Bing Q (2012) Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution. Phys Rev Lett 108(13):130503","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"key":"60_CR70","unstructured":"Acharya R et al (2024) Quantum error correction below the surface code threshold. arXiv preprint arXiv:2408.13687"},{"key":"60_CR71","unstructured":"Garcia-Cid MI et al (2024) Strategies for the Integration of quantum networks for a future quantum internet. arXiv preprint arXiv:2401.06444"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1109\/MM.2021.3092706","volume":"41","author":"S Rodrigo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rodrigo S et al (2021) On double full-stack communication-enabled architectures for multicore quantum computers. IEEE Micro 41(5):48\u201356","journal-title":"IEEE Micro"},{"issue":"4","key":"60_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"044064","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.18.044064","volume":"18","author":"H Jnane","year":"2022","unstructured":"Jnane H et al (2022) Multicore quantum computing. Phys Rev Appl 18(4):044064","journal-title":"Phys Rev Appl"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-021-00474-3","volume":"7","author":"T-Y Chen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chen T-Y et al (2021) Implementation of a 46-node quantum metropolitan area network. Npj Quantum Inf 7(1):134","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf"},{"key":"60_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TQE.2022.3221029","volume":"3","author":"J Chung","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chung J et al (2022) Design and implementation of the Illinois Express quantum metropolitan area network. IEEE Trans Quantum Eng 3:1\u201320","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Quantum Eng"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1038\/s42005-022-00945-9","volume":"5","author":"J Walln\u00f6fer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Walln\u00f6fer J et al. (2022) Simulating quantum repeater strategies for multiple satellites. Commun Phys 5(1):169","journal-title":"Commun Phys"},{"key":"60_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiti F, Picchi R, Pierucci L (2024) A survey on non-terrestrial quantum networking: challenges and trends. Comput Networks 110668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2024.110668"},{"issue":"1-4","key":"60_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2007.12.039","volume":"63","author":"JMP Armengol","year":"2008","unstructured":"Armengol JMP et al (2008) Quantum communications at ESA: towards a space experiment on the ISS. Acta Astronaut 63(1-4):165\u2013178","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut"},{"key":"60_CR79","unstructured":"G\u00fcndo\u011fan M et al (2021) Topical white paper: a case for quantum memories in space. arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.09595"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTQE.2015.2392076","volume":"21","author":"WJ Munro","year":"2015","unstructured":"Munro WJ et al (2015) Inside quantum repeaters. IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron 21(3):78\u201390","journal-title":"IEEE J Sel Top Quantum Electron"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20463","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20463","volume":"6","author":"S Muralidharan","year":"2016","unstructured":"Muralidharan S et al. (2016) Optimal architectures for long distance quantum communication. Sci Rep 6(1):20463","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"60_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22299","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2763325","volume":"5","author":"M Caleffi","year":"2017","unstructured":"Caleffi M (2017) Optimal routing for quantum networks. IEEE Access 5:22299\u201322312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2763325","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"60_CR83","unstructured":"Victora M et al (2020) Purification and entanglement routing on quantum networks. arXiv preprint arXiv:2011.11644"},{"key":"60_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li J et al (2022) Fidelity-guaranteed entanglement routing in quantum networks. IEEE Trans Commun 1\u20131","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2022.3200115"},{"key":"60_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107682","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rinp.2024.107682","volume":"60","author":"H HaoRan","year":"2024","unstructured":"HaoRan H et al (2024) High-fidelity entanglement routing in quantum networks. Results Phys 60:107682","journal-title":"Results Phys"},{"key":"60_CR86","unstructured":"Patil A et al (2024) Entanglement routing using quantum error correction for distillation. arXiv preprint arXiv:2405.00849"},{"key":"60_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1007\/s13119-013-0026-2","volume":"3","author":"R Van Meter","year":"2013","unstructured":"Van Meter R et al (2013) Path selection for quantum repeater networks. Networking Sci 3:82\u201395","journal-title":"Networking Sci"},{"key":"60_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar V et al (2023) Routing in quantum repeater networks with mixed efficiency figures. arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.08990","DOI":"10.1109\/FNWF63303.2024.11028804"},{"key":"60_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhao Y, Qiao C (2021) Redundant entanglement provisioning and selection for throughput maximization in quantum networks. In: IEEE INFOCOM 2021 - IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Vancouver, BC, Canada, pp 1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/INFO-COM42981.2021.9488850","DOI":"10.1109\/INFO-COM42981.2021.9488850"},{"key":"60_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4584","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2021.3070859","volume":"39","author":"S Zhang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhang S, Shi S, Qian C, Yeung KL (2021) Fragmentation-aware entanglement routing for quantum networks. J Lightwave Technol 39:4584\u20134591","journal-title":"J Lightwave Technol"},{"issue":"2","key":"60_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"023032","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevResearch.1.023032","volume":"1","author":"S Khatri","year":"2019","unstructured":"Khatri S et al. (2019) Practical figures of merit and thresholds for entanglement distribution in quantum networks. Phys Rev Res 1(2):023032","journal-title":"Phys Rev Res"},{"key":"60_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1109\/TQE.2021.3090532","volume":"2","author":"C Cicconetti","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cicconetti C, Conti M, Passarella A (2021) Request scheduling in quantum networks. IEEE Trans Quantum Eng 2:2\u201317","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Quantum Eng"},{"key":"60_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang Z et al (2023) An efficient scheduling scheme of swapping and purification operations for end-to-end entanglement distribution in quantum networks. In: IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSE.2023.3299177"},{"key":"60_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fittipaldi P, Giovanidis A, Grosshans F (2022) A linear algebraic framework for quantum internet dynamic scheduling. In: 2022 IEEE International Conference on Quantum Computing and Engineering (QCE), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/QCE53715.2022.00066"},{"key":"60_CR95","unstructured":"Huayue G et al (2023) ESDI: entanglement scheduling and distribution in the quantum internet. In: 2023 32nd International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks (ICCCN), IEEE"},{"key":"60_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TQE.2020.3028172","volume":"1","author":"K Chakraborty","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chakraborty K et al. (2020) Entanglement distribution in a quantum network: a multicommodity flow-based approach. IEEE Trans Quantum Eng 1:1\u201321","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Quantum Eng"},{"key":"60_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cicconetti C, Conti M, Passarella A (2022) Resource allocation in quantum networks for distributed quantum computing. In: 2022 IEEE International Conference on Smart Computing (SMARTCOMP), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/SMARTCOMP55677.2022.00032"},{"key":"60_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2023.101758","volume":"90","author":"C Cicconetti","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cicconetti C, Conti M, Passarella A (2023) Service differentiation and fair sharing in distributed quantum computing. Pervasive Mobile Comput 90:101758","journal-title":"Pervasive Mobile Comput"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2008.927260","volume":"17","author":"R Van Meter","year":"2008","unstructured":"Van Meter R et al (2008) System design for a long-line quantum repeater. IEEE\/ACM Trans Networking 17(3):1002\u20131013","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans Networking"},{"key":"60_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aparicio L, Van Meter R, Esaki H (2011) Protocol design for quantum repeater networks. In: Proceedings of the 7th Asian Internet Engineering Conference","DOI":"10.1145\/2089016.2089029"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"052320","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.100.052320","volume":"100","author":"T Matsuo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Matsuo T, Durand C, Van Meter R (2019) Quantum link bootstrapping using a RuleSet-based communication protocol. Phys Rev A 100(5):052320","journal-title":"Phys Rev A"},{"key":"60_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Meter R et al (2022) A quantum internet architecture. In: 2022 IEEE International Conference on Quantum Computing and Engineering (QCE), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/QCE53715.2022.00055"},{"key":"60_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kozlowski W, Dahlberg A, Wehner S (2020) Designing a quantum network protocol. In: Proceedings of the 16th international conference on emerging networking experiments and technologies","DOI":"10.1145\/3386367.3431293"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"033003","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/ab05f7","volume":"21","author":"A Pirker","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pirker A, D\u00fcr W (2019) A quantum network stack and protocols for reliable entanglement-based networks. New J Phys 21(3):033003","journal-title":"New J Phys"},{"key":"60_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dahlberg A et al (2019) A link layer protocol for quantum networks. In: Proceedings of the ACM special interest group on data communication, pp 159\u2013173.","DOI":"10.1145\/3341302.3342070"},{"key":"60_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kozlowski W, Wehner S (2019) Towards large-scale quantum networks. In: Proceedings of the sixth annual ACM international conference on nanoscale computing and communication","DOI":"10.1145\/3345312.3345497"},{"key":"60_CR107","unstructured":"Leone H et al (2021) QuNet: cost vector analysis & multi-path entanglement routing in quantum networks arXiv preprint arXiv:2105.00418"},{"issue":"4","key":"60_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3999","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2023.3275815","volume":"20","author":"L Zhonghui","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhonghui L et al (2023) Swapping-based entanglement routing design for congestion mitigation in quantum networks. IEEE Trans Network Serv Manage 20(4):3999\u20134012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Network Serv Manage"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"053054","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/aac2aa","volume":"20","author":"A Pirker","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pirker A, Walln\u00f6fer J, D\u00fcr W (2018) Modular architectures for quantum networks. New J Phys 20(5):053054","journal-title":"New J Phys"},{"issue":"9","key":"60_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1109\/49.12889","volume":"6","author":"BM Waxman","year":"1988","unstructured":"Waxman BM (1988) Routing of multipoint connections. IEEE J Sel Areas Commun 6(9):1617\u20131622","journal-title":"IEEE J Sel Areas Commun"},{"key":"60_CR111","unstructured":"Schoute E et al (2016) Shortcuts to quantum network routing. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.05238"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2020.2969005","volume":"38","author":"D Wenhan","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wenhan D, Peng T, Win MZ (2020) Optimal remote entanglement distribution. IEEE J Sel Areas Commun 38(3):540\u2013556","journal-title":"IEEE J Sel Areas Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-021-00501-3","volume":"8","author":"J Rabbie","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rabbie J et al (2022) Designing quantum networks using preexisting infrastructure. Npj Quantum Inf 8(1):5","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf"},{"key":"60_CR114","unstructured":"Nguyen TN et al (2022) Maximizing entanglement routing rate in quantum networks: approximation algorithms. arXiv preprint arXiv:2207.11821"},{"key":"60_CR115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-019-0139-x","volume":"5","author":"M Pant","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pant M, Krovi H, Towsley D et al (2019) Routing entanglement in the quantum internet. Npj Quantum Inf 5:25","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf"},{"key":"60_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi S, Qian C (2020).Concurrent entanglement routing for quantum networks: model and designs. In: Proceedings of the Annual conference of the ACM Special Interest Group on Data Communication on the applications, technologies, architectures, and protocols for computer communication","DOI":"10.1145\/3387514.3405853"},{"key":"60_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang Z et al (2024) Asynchronous entanglement routing for the quantum internet. AVS Quantum Sci 6(1)","DOI":"10.1116\/5.0172819"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2023.3285093","volume":"32","author":"L Chen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chen L et al (2023) Q-DDCA: decentralized dynamic congestion avoid routing in large-scale quantum networks. IEEE\/ACM Trans Networking 32(1):368\u2013381","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans Networking"},{"key":"60_CR119","unstructured":"Coutinho BC et al (2023) Entanglement routing based on fidelity curves for quantum photonics channels. arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.12864"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-020-00344-4","volume":"7","author":"L Changhao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Changhao L et al (2021) Effective routing design for remote entanglement generation on quantum networks. Npj Quantum Inf 7(1):10","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf"},{"key":"60_CR121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao Y, Zhao G, Qiao C (2022) E2E fidelity aware routing and purification for throughput maximization in quantum networks. In: IEEE INFOCOM 2022-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM48880.2022.9796814"},{"key":"60_CR122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang L et al (2022) Online entanglement routing in quantum networks. In: 2022 IEEE\/ACM 30th International Symposium on Quality of Service (IWQoS), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/IWQoS54832.2022.9812920"},{"key":"60_CR123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iacovelli G et al (2024) A probability-based optimization approach for entanglement distribution and source position in quantum networks. In: IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2024.3380084"},{"key":"60_CR124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaewpuang R et al (2023) Entangled pair resource allocation under uncertain fidelity requirements. In: 2023 Biennial Symposium on Communications (BSC), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/BSC57238.2023.10201812"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2023.3282560","volume":"32","author":"Y Zeng","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zeng Y et al. (2023) Entanglement routing design over quantum networks. IEEE\/ACM Trans Networking 32(1):352\u2013367","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans Networking"},{"key":"60_CR126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pandey AK et al (2023) Greedy algorithms for finding entanglement swap paths in quantum networks. In: Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Distributed Computing and Networking","DOI":"10.1145\/3571306.3571408"},{"key":"60_CR127","first-page":"1","volume":"3","author":"L Linh","year":"2022","unstructured":"Linh L, Nguyen TN (2022) Dqra: deep quantum routing agent for entanglement routing in quantum networks. IEEE Trans Quantum Eng 3:1\u201312","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Quantum Eng"},{"key":"60_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaudhary V, Kai L, Chowdhury K (2023) Learning-based route selection in noisy quantum communication networks. ICC 2023-IEEE International Conference on Communications, IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC45041.2023.10279751"},{"key":"60_CR129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Islam T, Arifuzzaman M, Arslan E (2024) Reinforcement learning based proactive entanglement swapping for quantum networks. In: 2024 International Conference on Quantum Communications, Networking, and Computing (QCNC), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/QCNC62729.2024.00030"},{"key":"60_CR130","unstructured":"Milligen V, Emily A et al (2023) Entanglement routing over networks with time multiplexed repeaters. arXiv preprint arXiv:2308.15028"},{"key":"60_CR131","unstructured":"Chakraborty K et al (2019) Distributed routing in a quantum internet. arXiv preprint arXiv:1907.11630"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1038\/s42005-021-00647-8","volume":"4","author":"T Coopmans","year":"2021","unstructured":"Coopmans T et al (2021) Netsquid, a network simulator for quantum information using discrete events. Commun Phys 4(1):164","journal-title":"Commun Phys"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"015001","DOI":"10.1088\/2058-9565\/aad56e","volume":"4","author":"A Dahlberg","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dahlberg A, Wehner S (2018) SimulaQron\u2014a simulator for developing quantum internet software. Quantum Sci Technol 4(1):015001","journal-title":"Quantum Sci Technol"},{"key":"60_CR134","first-page":"1","volume":"2","author":"S DiAdamo","year":"2021","unstructured":"DiAdamo S et al. (2021) Qunetsim: a software framework for quantum networks. IEEE Trans Quantum Eng 2:1\u201312","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Quantum Eng"},{"issue":"4","key":"60_CR135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"045027","DOI":"10.1088\/2058-9565\/ac22f6","volume":"6","author":"W Xiaoliang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Xiaoliang W et al (2021) SeQUeNCe: a customizable discrete-event simulator of quantum networks. Quantum Sci Technol 6(4):045027","journal-title":"Quantum Sci Technol"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.130.2200481","volume":"37","author":"L Chen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chen L et al (2023) SimQN: a network-layer simulator for the quantum network investigation. IEEE Network 37(5):182\u2013189","journal-title":"IEEE Network"},{"issue":"8","key":"60_CR137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180509","DOI":"10.1007\/s11432-023-3773-4","volume":"66","author":"K Fang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fang K et al (2023) Quantum NETwork: from theory to practice. Sci China Inf Sci 66(8):180509","journal-title":"Sci China Inf Sci"},{"key":"60_CR138","unstructured":"Bartlett B (2018) A distributed simulation framework for quantum networks and channels. arXiv preprint arXiv:1808.07047"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-021-00454-7","volume":"7","author":"F Appas","year":"2021","unstructured":"Appas F et al (2021) Flexible entanglement-distribution network with an AlGaAs chip for secure communications. Npj Quantum Inf 7(1):118","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf"},{"issue":"4","key":"60_CR140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"040304","DOI":"10.1103\/PRXQuantum.2.040304","volume":"2","author":"M Alshowkan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Alshowkan M et al (2021) Reconfigurable quantum local area network over deployed fiber. PRX Quantum 2(4):040304","journal-title":"PRX Quantum"},{"issue":"7911","key":"60_CR141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04697-y","volume":"605","author":"SLN Hermans","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hermans SLN et al (2022) Qubit teleportation between non-neighbouring nodes in a quantum network. Nature 605(7911):663\u2013668","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"8012","key":"60_CR142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07308-0","volume":"629","author":"J-L Liu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Liu J-L et al (2024) Creation of memory\u2013memory entanglement in a metropolitan quantum network. Nature 629(8012):579\u2013585","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"8012","key":"60_CR143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07252-z","volume":"629","author":"CM Knaut","year":"2024","unstructured":"Knaut CM et al (2024) Entanglement of nanophotonic quantum memory nodes in a telecom network. Nature 629(8012):573\u2013578","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"3","key":"60_CR144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"030330","DOI":"10.1103\/PRXQuantum.5.030330","volume":"5","author":"AN Craddock","year":"2024","unstructured":"Craddock AN et al (2024) Automated distribution of polarization-entangled photons using deployed New York city fibers. PRX Quantum 5(3):030330","journal-title":"PRX Quantum"},{"key":"60_CR145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang C, Rahman A, Li R, Aelmans M, Chakraborty K 2024 Application scenarios for the Quantum internet. IRTF RFC9583","DOI":"10.17487\/RFC9583"},{"key":"60_CR146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kozlowski W, Wehner S, Van Meter R, Rijsman B, Cacciapuoti AS, Caleffi M, Nagayama S (2023) Architectural principles for a Quantum internet. IRTF RFC9340","DOI":"10.17487\/RFC9340"},{"key":"60_CR147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Monga I, Saglamyurek E, Kissel E, Haffner H, Wu W (2023) QUANT-NET: a testbed for quantum networking research over deployed fiber. In: Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Quantum Networks and Distributed Quantum Computing, in QuNet 23, New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery, Settembre, pp 31\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3610251.3610561","DOI":"10.1145\/3610251.3610561"},{"key":"60_CR148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Peters NA et al (2022) Quantum networking and communications at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. In: IEEE INFOCOM 2022\u2013 IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS), pp 1\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/INFOCOMWKSHPS54753.2022.9797980","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOMWKSHPS54753.2022.9797980"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16752","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-67495-8","volume":"14","author":"S Gupta","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gupta S et al (2024) ChaQra: a cellular unit of the Indian quantum network. Sci Rep 14(1):16752","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"7497","key":"60_CR150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1038\/508441a","volume":"508","author":"J Qiu","year":"2014","unstructured":"Qiu J (2014) Quantum communications leap out of the lab. Nature 508(7497):441\u2013442","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"2","key":"60_CR151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"020501","DOI":"10.1088\/2058-9565\/ab788a","volume":"5","author":"N Lauk","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lauk N et al (2020) Perspectives on quantum transduction. Quantum Sci Technol 5(2):020501","journal-title":"Quantum Sci Technol"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-022-00631-2","volume":"8","author":"M Pompili","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pompili M et al (2022) Experimental demonstration of entanglement delivery using a quantum network stack. Npj Quantum Inf 8(1):121","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf"},{"issue":"5","key":"60_CR153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.2200151","volume":"36","author":"M Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu M et al. (2022) Quantum networks with multiple service providers: transport layer protocols and research opportunities. IEEE Network 36(5):56\u201362","journal-title":"IEEE Network"},{"key":"60_CR154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu M et al (2024) Quantum BGP with online path selection via network benchmarking. In: IEEE INFOCOM 2024-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM52122.2024.10621359"},{"key":"60_CR155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bala R, Sohel Mondal M, Santra S (2025) Statistical analysis of multipath entanglement purification in quantum networks. arXiv preprint arXiv:2502.09011","DOI":"10.1103\/l9xq-zlcq"},{"key":"60_CR156","unstructured":"Tianjie H, Jindi W, Qun L (2024) Quantum network routing based on surface code error correction. In: 2024 IEEE 44th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems (ICDCS), IEEE"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13251","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13251","volume":"7","author":"W McCutcheon","year":"2016","unstructured":"McCutcheon W et al. (2016) Experimental verification of multipartite entanglement in quantum networks. Nat Commun 7(1):13251","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"012609","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.107.012609","volume":"107","author":"G Avis","year":"2023","unstructured":"Avis G, Rozp\u0119dek F, Wehner S (2023) Analysis of multipartite entanglement distribution using a central quantum-network node. Phys Rev A 107(1):012609","journal-title":"Phys Rev A"},{"key":"60_CR159","unstructured":"Ainley EM et al (2024) Multipartite entanglement for multi-node quantum networks. arXiv preprint arXiv:2408.00149"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-022-00536-0","volume":"8","author":"A Patil","year":"2022","unstructured":"Patil A et al (2022) Entanglement generation in a quantum network at distance-independent rate. Npj Quantum Inf 8(1):51","journal-title":"Npj Quantum Inf"},{"key":"60_CR161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patil A et al (2021) Distance-independent entanglement generation in a quantum network using space-time multiplexed Greenberger\u2013Horne\u2013Zeilinger (GHZ) measurements. In: 2021 IEEE International Conference on Quantum Computing and Engineering (QCE), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/QCE52317.2021.00050"},{"key":"60_CR162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zavitsanos D et al (2019) Coexistence of discrete-variable QKD with WDM classical signals in the C-band for fiber access environments. In: 2019 21st International Conference on Transparent Optical Networks (ICTON), IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTON.2019.8840255"},{"key":"60_CR163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lukens JM, Peters NA, Bing Q (2025) Hybrid classical-quantum communication networks. arXiv preprint arXiv:2502.07298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pquantelec.2025.100586"},{"key":"60_CR164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreira P et al (2009) White rabbit: sub-nanosecond timing distribution over ethernet. In: 2009 International Symposium on Precision Clock Synchronization for Measurement, Control and Communication, IEEE","DOI":"10.1109\/ISPCS.2009.5340196"},{"key":"60_CR165","unstructured":"Rijsman B et al (2023) Architectural principles for a quantum internet"},{"key":"60_CR166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589504","DOI":"10.3389\/fphy.2020.589504","volume":"8","author":"Y Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang Y et al (2020) Qudits and high-dimensional quantum computing. Front Phys 8:589504","journal-title":"Front Phys"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2016.11.007","volume":"62","author":"F-G Deng","year":"2017","unstructured":"Deng F-G, Ren B-C, Xi-Han L (2017) Quantum hyperentanglement and its applications in quantum information processing. Sci Bull 62(1):46\u201368","journal-title":"Sci Bull"},{"issue":"2","key":"60_CR168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"022308","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.77.022308","volume":"77","author":"S Perseguers","year":"2008","unstructured":"Perseguers S et al (2008) Entanglement distribution in pure-state quantum networks. Phys Rev A At Mol Opt Phys 77(2):022308","journal-title":"Phys Rev A At Mol Opt Phys"},{"issue":"1","key":"60_CR169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"012335","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.97.012335","volume":"97","author":"D Siddhartha","year":"2018","unstructured":"Siddhartha D, Khatri S, Dowling JP (2018) Robust quantum network architectures and topologies for entanglement distribution. Phys Rev A 97(1):012335","journal-title":"Phys Rev A"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Networked and Distributed Computing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44227-025-00060-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44227-025-00060-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44227-025-00060-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,18]],"date-time":"2025-12-18T18:02:04Z","timestamp":1766080924000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44227-025-00060-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]]},"references-count":169,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["60"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44227-025-00060-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["2211-7938","2211-7946"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2211-7938","type":"print"},{"value":"2211-7946","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"27 November 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 March 2025","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 April 2025","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 July 2025","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for Publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}],"article-number":"22"}}