{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T04:10:08Z","timestamp":1777954208908,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770681600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775606400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":57,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Open Foundation of Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security","award":["No.KLCS20240211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No.KLCS20240211"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. King Saud Univ. Comput. Inf. Sci."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s44443-026-00520-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T06:23:15Z","timestamp":1770704595000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["KGB-Path: a knowledge graph-based framework for penetration test path generation in intelligent connected vehicles"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"38","author":[{"given":"Dalong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haibin","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5351-9349","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haoyang","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8369-5173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"520_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alshehri J, Alhamed A, Frikha M (2024) Planning for Penetration Testing in Small & Medium Enterprises: Challenges and Best Practices. In: 2024 IEEE eleventh international conference on communications and networking (ComNet). IEEE, pp 1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ComNet64071.2024.10987546","DOI":"10.1109\/ComNet64071.2024.10987546"},{"key":"520_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Badarneh HJ et al (2024) The power of Network Penetration Testing. In: 2024 25th international arab conference on information technology (ACIT). IEEE, pp 1\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACIT62805.2024.10877214","DOI":"10.1109\/ACIT62805.2024.10877214"},{"key":"520_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpro.2023.104823","volume":"98","author":"MA Bouke","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bouke MA, Abdullah A, Alshatebi SH, Abdullah MT, Atigh HE (2023) An intelligent DDoS attack detection tree-based model using Gini index feature selection method. Microprocess Microsyst 98:104823. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.micpro.2023.104823","journal-title":"Microprocess Microsyst"},{"issue":"14","key":"520_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/math11143063","volume":"11","author":"N Christakis","year":"2023","unstructured":"Christakis N, Drikakis D (2023) Reducing uncertainty and increasing confidence in unsupervised learning. Mathematics 11(14):3063. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/math11143063","journal-title":"Mathematics"},{"issue":"2","key":"520_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2020.3019101","volume":"23","author":"M Dibaei","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dibaei M et al (2022) Investigating the prospect of leveraging blockchain and machine learning to secure vehicular networks: a survey. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 23(2):683\u2013700. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TITS.2020.3019101","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"issue":"12","key":"520_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2863","DOI":"10.16383\/j.aas.c211108","volume":"48","author":"D Fei","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fei D et al (2022) A survey of architecture and key technologies of intelligent connected vehicle-road-cloud cooperation system. Acta Autom Sin 48(12):2863\u20132885. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.16383\/j.aas.c211108","journal-title":"Acta Autom Sin"},{"key":"520_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gardner E, Singh G, Qu W (2024) Penetration Testing Operating Systems: Exploiting Vulnerabilities. In: 2024 international conference on communications, computing, cybersecurity, and informatics (CCCI). IEEE, pp 1\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/CCCI61916.2024.10736454","DOI":"10.1109\/CCCI61916.2024.10736454"},{"issue":"5","key":"520_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6624","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2022.3206354","volume":"19","author":"J Guo","year":"2023","unstructured":"Guo J, Li L, Wang J, Li K (2023) Cyber-physical system-based path tracking control of autonomous vehicles under cyber-attacks. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 19(5):6624\u20136635. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TII.2022.3206354","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Ind Inform"},{"key":"520_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hu Z, Beuran R, Tan Y (2020) Automated Penetration Testing Using Deep Reinforcement Learning. In: 2020 IEEE European symposium on security and privacy workshops (EuroS&PW). IEEE, pp 2\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/EuroSPW51379.2020.00010","DOI":"10.1109\/EuroSPW51379.2020.00010"},{"key":"520_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ingols K, Lippmann R, Piwowarski K (2006) Practical Attack Graph Generation for Network Defense. In: 2006 22nd annual computer security applications conference (ACSAC'06). IEEE, pp 121\u2013130. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACSAC.2006.39","DOI":"10.1109\/ACSAC.2006.39"},{"key":"520_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27110","DOI":"10.1007\/s10489-023-04946-1","volume":"53","author":"Q Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li Q, Hu M, Hao H, Zhang M (2023) INNES: an intelligent network penetration testing model based on deep reinforcement learning. Appl Intell 53:27110\u201327127. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10489-023-04946-1","journal-title":"Appl Intell"},{"issue":"1","key":"520_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3285224","volume":"11","author":"X Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li X, Hu X, Jiang T (2024a) Dual-reinforcement-learning-based attack path prediction for 5G industrial cyber-physical systems. IEEE Internet Things J 11(1):50\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JIOT.2023.3285224","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J"},{"key":"520_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8966","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2024.3461950","volume":"19","author":"Q Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li Q, Wang R, Li D, Shi F, Zhang M, Chattopadhyay A (2024b) Dynpen: automated penetration testing in dynamic network scenarios using deep reinforcement learning. IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Secur 19:8966\u20138981. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TIFS.2024.3461950","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Secur"},{"issue":"1","key":"520_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2020.3010523","volume":"23","author":"R Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu R, Yuan Z, Liu T (2022) Learning tbox with a cascaded anchor-free network for vehicle detection. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 23(1):321\u2013332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TITS.2020.3010523","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"key":"520_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2023.121103","volume":"234","author":"Y Liu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Liu Y, Wei S, Huang H, Lai Q, Li M, Guan L (2023) Naming entity recognition of citrus pests and diseases based on the BERT-BILSTM-CRF model. Expert Syst Appl 234:121103. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eswa.2023.121103","journal-title":"Expert Syst Appl"},{"issue":"2","key":"520_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2021.3117348","volume":"19","author":"A Nadeem","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nadeem A, Verwer S, Moskal S, Yang SJ (2022) Alert-driven attack graph generation using S-PDFA. IEEE Trans Dependable Secure Comput 19(2):731\u2013746. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TDSC.2021.3117348","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Dependable Secure Comput"},{"issue":"3","key":"520_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.3390\/app13031252","volume":"13","author":"CI Nwakanma","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nwakanma CI et al (2023) Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) for intrusion detection and mitigation in intelligent connected vehicles: A review. Appl Sci 13(3):1252. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app13031252","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"key":"520_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csi.2021.103539","volume":"78","author":"I Pekaric","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pekaric I, Sauerwein C, Haselwanter S et al (2021) A taxonomy of attack mechanisms in the automotive domain. Comput Stand Interfaces 78:103539. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.csi.2021.103539","journal-title":"Comput Stand Interfaces"},{"key":"520_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ren L, Liu Y, Ouyang C (2023) Causal inference-based debiasing framework for knowledge graph completion. In: Proc int semantic web conf. Springer, Cham, pp 328\u2013347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-031-47240-4_18","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-47240-4_18"},{"key":"520_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ring M, D\u00fcrrwang J, Sommer F, Kriesten R (2015) Survey on vehicular attacks - building a vulnerability database. In: 2015 IEEE international conference on vehicular electronics and safety (ICVES). IEEE, pp 208\u2013212. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICVES.2015.7396919","DOI":"10.1109\/ICVES.2015.7396919"},{"key":"520_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5815","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3525586","volume":"13","author":"M Sabet","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sabet M, Pajoohan M, Moosavi MR (2025) Knowledge graph completion with pattern-based methods. IEEE Access 13:5815\u20135831. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3525586","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"520_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sada BAL, Sadighian A, Oligeri G (2025) MITRE ATT&CK: State of the Art and Way Forward. ACM Comput Surv 57(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3687300","DOI":"10.1145\/3687300"},{"key":"520_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2021.102696","volume":"124","author":"M Safwat","year":"2022","unstructured":"Safwat M, Elgammal A, AbdAllah EG, Azer MA (2022) Survey and taxonomy of information-centric vehicular networking security attacks. Ad Hoc Netw 124:102696. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.adhoc.2021.102696","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw"},{"key":"520_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Singh T, Kumar A (2023) Analyzing security and privacy issues for multi-cloud service providers using Nessus. In: 2023 Fifth international conference on electrical, computer and communication technologies (ICECCT). IEEE, pp 1\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICECCT56650.2023.10179727","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECCT56650.2023.10179727"},{"issue":"4","key":"520_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/info10040148","volume":"10","author":"F Sommer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sommer F, D\u00fcrrwang J, Kriesten R (2019) Survey and classification of automotive security attacks. Information 10(4):148. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info10040148","journal-title":"Information"},{"key":"520_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sommer F (2024) Automatic attack path generation in automotive model-based security testing. PhD dissertation, University of Ulm. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18725\/OPARU-53899","DOI":"10.18725\/OPARU-53899"},{"issue":"1","key":"520_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2023.3278697","volume":"9","author":"HT Sun","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sun HT, Peng C, Ge X, Chen Z (2024) Secure event-triggered sliding control for path following of autonomous vehicles under sensor and actuator attacks. IEEE Trans Intell Veh 9(1):981\u2013992. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TIV.2023.3278697","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Veh"},{"key":"520_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tairan H, Wenlong G, Tianyang Z, Yichao Z (2021) Bi-population Genetic Algorithm-Based Attack Path Discovery Research in Large-scale Networks. In: 2021 world conference on computing and communication technologies (WCCCT). IEEE, pp 14\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/WCCCT52091.2021.00014","DOI":"10.1109\/WCCCT52091.2021.00014"},{"key":"520_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1007\/s11063-022-10933-3","volume":"55","author":"X Tang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tang X, Huang Y, Xia M, Long C (2023) A multi-task BERT-BiLSTM-AM-CRF strategy for Chinese named entity recognition. Neural Process Lett 55:1209\u20131229. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11063-022-10933-3","journal-title":"Neural Process Lett"},{"issue":"3","key":"520_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1109\/TETCI.2023.3235381","volume":"7","author":"H Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang H, Xu Y, Wang Z, Cai Y, Chen L, Li Y (2023) Centernet-auto: a multi-object visual detection algorithm for autonomous driving scenes based on improved CenterNet. IEEE Trans Emerg Top Comput Intell 7(3):742\u2013752. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TETCI.2023.3235381","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Emerg Top Comput Intell"},{"issue":"2","key":"520_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2014.2351612","volume":"16","author":"S Woo","year":"2015","unstructured":"Woo S, Jo HJ, Lee DH (2015) A practical wireless attack on the connected car and security protocol for in-vehicle CAN. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst 16(2):993\u20131006. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TITS.2014.2351612","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst"},{"issue":"8","key":"520_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eng.2021.05.015","volume":"15","author":"J Wu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wu J (2022) Cyberspace endogenous safety and security. Engineering 15(8):179\u2013185. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eng.2021.05.015","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"issue":"8","key":"520_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/info13080396","volume":"13","author":"M Zamini","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zamini M, Reza H, Rabiei M (2022) A review of knowledge graph completion. Information 13(8):396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/info13080396","journal-title":"Information"},{"issue":"4","key":"520_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1109\/LES.2024.3432593","volume":"16","author":"Z Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Zhang J, Xie J, Liu S (2024) An endogenous security study of telematics box in intelligent connected vehicles. IEEE Embed Syst Lett 16(4):501\u2013504. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/LES.2024.3432593","journal-title":"IEEE Embed Syst Lett"},{"key":"520_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhang Y, Zhang W (2023) CausE: Towards Causal Knowledge Graph Embedding. arXiv preprint arXiv:2307.11610. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2307.11610","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2307.11610"},{"key":"520_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zheng S, Wang W, Qu J, Yin H, Chen W, Zhao L (2023) MMKGR: Multi-hop multi-modal knowledge graph reasoning. In: 2023 IEEE 39th international conference on data engineering (ICDE). IEEE, pp 96\u2013109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICDE55515.2023.00015","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDE55515.2023.00015"}],"container-title":["Journal of King Saud University Computer and Information Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44443-026-00520-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44443-026-00520-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s44443-026-00520-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T17:27:17Z","timestamp":1777915637000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s44443-026-00520-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["520"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44443-026-00520-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["1319-1578","2213-1248"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1319-1578","type":"print"},{"value":"2213-1248","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"20 September 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"123"}}