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However, manual segmentation of orbital anatomy is challenging due to the complexity and variability of the structures. Recent advancements in deep learning (DL), particularly convolutional neural networks (CNNs), offer promising solutions for automated segmentation in medical imaging. This study aimed to train and evaluate a\u00a0U-Net-based model for the automated segmentation of key orbital structures.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This retrospective study included 117 patients with various orbital pathologies who underwent orbital MRI. Manual segmentation was performed on four anatomical structures: the ocular bulb, ocular tumors, retinal detachment, and the optic nerve. Following the UNet autoconfiguration by nnUNet, we conducted a\u00a0five-fold cross-validation and evaluated the model\u2019s performances using Dice Similarity Coefficient (DSC) and Relative Absolute Volume Difference (RAVD) as metrics.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>nnU-Net achieved high segmentation performance for the ocular bulb (mean DSC: 0.931) and the optic nerve (mean DSC: 0.820). Segmentation of ocular tumors (mean DSC: 0.788) and retinal detachment (mean DSC: 0.550) showed greater variability, with performance declining in more challenging cases. Despite these challenges, the model achieved high detection rates, with ROC AUCs of 0.90 for ocular tumors and 0.78 for retinal detachment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study demonstrates nnU-Net\u2019s capability for accurate segmentation of orbital structures, particularly the ocular bulb and optic nerve. However, challenges remain in the segmentation of tumors and retinal detachment due to variability and artifacts. Future improvements in deep learning models and broader, more diverse datasets may enhance segmentation performance, ultimately aiding in the diagnosis and treatment of orbital pathologies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00062-025-01535-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,26]],"date-time":"2025-06-26T06:41:25Z","timestamp":1750920085000},"page":"735-745","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Deep Learning Model for Automated Segmentation of Orbital Structures in MRI Images"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"35","author":[{"given":"Esmira","family":"Bakhshaliyeva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lara Noelle","family":"Reiner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moudather","family":"Chelbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jawed","family":"Nawabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Tietze","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Scheel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mike","family":"Wattjes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Dell\u2019Orco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6537-9419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aymen","family":"Meddeb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"1535_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1016\/s0161-6420(85)33863-0.","volume":"92","author":"DH Char","year":"1985","unstructured":"Char\u00a0DH, Sobel\u00a0D, Kelly\u00a0WM, Kjos\u00a0BO, Norman\u00a0D. 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