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Consequently, snakes are salient stimuli associated with prioritized attention, early detection and emotional significance. This has been interpreted as an adaptive evolutionary response of the primate brain to a risk of envenoming by a hidden snake. However, the struggle between mammals and snakes is not one-sided. Humans and carnivores regularly kill snakes, and thus snakes develop deterring defensive behaviour that may directly evoke enhanced fear. Here, we show that snakes depicted in threatening posture evoked on average more fear than those in resting posture. Significantly, African (Somali) and European (Czech) respondents considerably agreed on the relative fear elicited by various snakes. Nonetheless, not all defensive postures are equally efficient. Threatening cobras were perceived as top fear-evoking stimuli, even though most of them are not considered very frightening in resting posture. This effect can be attributed to their conspicuous hooding posture which evolved into an efficient warning signal for mammalian predators. Our result demonstrates that cobras are more effective than other snakes in the ability to evoke human fear by a simple behavioural display\u2014hooding. This can be primarily explained by the behavioural evolution of cobras which successfully exploited pre-existing cognitive mechanisms of mammals. Whether human ancestors cohabiting with deadly venomous cobras further improved their fear response to hooding is uncertain, but likely.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00114-024-01952-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]],"date-time":"2024-12-04T07:18:29Z","timestamp":1733296709000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Hooding cobras can get ahead of other snakes in the ability to evoke human fear"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"112","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1375-7972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Frynta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1019-0499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iveta","family":"\u0160tolhoferov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1810-8170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hassan Sh Abdirahman","family":"Elmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7647-8148","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark\u00e9ta","family":"Janovcov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7113-5648","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronika","family":"Rudolfov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kate\u0159ina","family":"Rexov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4519-9677","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Sommer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7930-1927","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Kr\u00e1l","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel Alex","family":"Berti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8365-8710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Landov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9385-9743","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petra","family":"Fr\u00fddlov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"1952_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0012080","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0012080","volume":"18","author":"A Afroz","year":"2024","unstructured":"Afroz A, Siddiquea BN, Chowdhury HA, Jackson TN, Watt AD (2024) Snakebite envenoming: a systematic review and meta-analysis of global morbidity and mortality. 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