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Glucagon and total GLP-1 and GIP responses when fasting and post-OGTT were assessed by linear mixed models. Ethnic differences in incretin and glucagon levels were evaluated by linear regression analyses. Pre-hepatic insulin levels were estimated using deconvolution of C-peptide kinetics.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Ethnic differences in glucagon and incretin levels varied by glycaemic status. In the normoglycaemic South Asian group, early (0\u201315 min) glucagon suppression post-OGTT was significantly attenuated compared with the Nordic group (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.002). Fasting glucagon levels did not differ (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.139), but total glucagon exposure (including fasting levels) was higher in South Asian women (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.013). No differences in GIP and GLP responses to the OGTT were observed (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.490 and\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.802). In women with prediabetes or diabetes, fasting glucagon was higher in the South Asian group (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.010), but there were no significant differences in early glucagon suppression post-OGTT (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.986). GIP responses to the OGTT were lower among South Asian women (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &lt;0.001), despite higher insulin responses compared with the Nordic women. GLP-1 responses did not differ between the ethnic groups (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      =0.661). The higher pre-hepatic insulin levels in South Asian vs Nordic normoglycaemic women were not associated with differences in incretin levels, but were associated with lower insulin sensitivity in the regression analyses (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &lt;0.001).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions\/interpretation<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>When examined 1\u20133 years post-GDM, normoglycaemic South Asian women had less early glucagon suppression and higher total glucagon exposure post-OGTT compared with Nordic women. The higher pre-hepatic insulin levels were not associated with higher incretin levels, but were associated with lower insulin sensitivity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-026-06898-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T14:09:30Z","timestamp":1792159770000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Altered glucagon and GIP responses in South Asian versus Nordic women after gestational diabetes mellitus"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"given":"Archana","family":"Sharma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sindre","family":"Lee-\u00d8deg\u00e5rd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jens Juul","family":"Holst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bolette","family":"Hartmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A. 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Diabetes Obes Metab 28(6):5287\u20135293. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/dom.70735","journal-title":"Diabetes Obes Metab"}],"container-title":["Diabetologia"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00125-026-06898-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00125-026-06898-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00125-026-06898-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T14:09:32Z","timestamp":1792159772000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00125-026-06898-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]]},"references-count":43,"alternative-id":["6898"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00125-026-06898-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["0012-186X","1432-0428"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0012-186X","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-0428","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"5 May 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 October 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"We would like to dedicate this paper to the memory of Dr Cecilie Wium, who passed away shortly before completion of this study. She conceptualised and designed the study, wrote the protocol and obtained the funding \u2013 the study would never have been performed without her. The authors would also like to thank the women who participated in the study, the study nurses \u00c5. Stavik (Department of Endocrinology, Akershus University Hospital, Norway), K. Pleym (Department of Medicine, Drammen Hospital, Vestre Viken Hospital Trust, Drammen, Norway), \u00c5. Halsne, J. Anurathan, and study coordinator E. Hillestad (all Department of Endocrinology, Morbid Obesity and Preventive Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Norway) for invaluable help in the recruitment and examination of the participants. Parts of this work were presented orally at the 61st Annual Meeting of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Vienna, Austria, 15\u201319 September 2025.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Acknowledgements","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}},{"value":"All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and the electronic supplementary material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Data availability","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}},{"value":"Open access funding provided by Akershus University Hospital (AHUS). This study was funded by the Research Council of Norway, grant number 273252, and a research grant from Novo Nordisk was used to cover the assay costs for glucagon and incretin measurements. The study funder was not involved in the design of the study, the collection, analysis and interpretation of data, or writing of the manuscript, and did not impose any restrictions with regard to the publication of the article.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Funding","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}},{"value":"The authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Authors\u2019 relationships and activities","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}},{"value":"AS researched data and drafted the manuscript. EQ, IN, STS and KIB contributed to the design of the study. KIB contributed to the study protocol and aided in data acquisition. KIB supervised the study performance All authors contributed to analysis or interpretation of data for the work, revised the manuscript critically and approved the final manuscript. KIB is the guarantor of this work, and as such, had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","label":"Contribution statement","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}}]}}