{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T11:20:11Z","timestamp":1792840811866,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786492800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Curtin University"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Arch Toxicol"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Flavoured-air inhalers containing essential oils are marketed as safe, natural alternatives to smoking and vaping, yet their potential respiratory toxicity remains effectively unexamined. Manufacturers claim safety based on \"100% natural\" ingredients, despite evidence that essential oil inhalation can cause adverse respiratory effects. Our objective was to assess the in vitro toxicity of six commercially available flavoured-air products on human nasal airway epithelial cells. Differentiated air\u2013liquid interface cultures of primary nasal airway epithelial cells from eight healthy adults were exposed for one hour to air (control) or flavoured air from three devices (F\u00fcm, Lio, Cigtrus; two flavours each) generated by drawing air through essential oil-infused cores at a continuous airflow of 1 L\/min for one hour into an 1000\u00a0mL exposure chamber. Outcomes included transepithelial electrical resistance, cytotoxicity, protein release, cytokine\/chemokine profiling and histological assessment. Chemical analysis characterised the chemical composition of device cores and identified 29 compounds across the six products, including the possible carcinogen pulegone and cytotoxic cinnamaldehyde. Five of six flavours significantly reduced transepithelial electrical resistance indicating compromised epithelial barrier integrity. Mediator responses were compartment-specific: apical surfaces showed predominantly pro-inflammatory profiles while basal release was broadly suppressed. Histological analysis revealed reduced cilia coverage, fewer mucus-producing cells, and decreased epithelial thickness across multiple treatments. This study shows that a single one-hour exposure to flavoured-air vapour led to epithelial barrier dysfunction, immune dysregulation, and structural damage in healthy human nasal airway epithelial cells, contradicting manufacturer safety claims. Rigorous toxicological evaluation of these products is urgently needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-026-04521-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T20:40:31Z","timestamp":1786567231000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Toxic in vitro effects of flavoured-air inhalers containing essential oils in differentiated human nasal epithelial cells at air\u2013liquid interface"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"N. Larcombe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"E. E.","family":"Catchpole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P.","family":"Hopper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S.","family":"Stanley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Kicic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K. R.","family":"Landwehr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"on behalf of CONQUER","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"4521_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1007\/s00424-012-1204-x","volume":"465","author":"YA Alpizar","year":"2013","unstructured":"Alpizar YA, Gees M, Sanchez A et al (2013) Bimodal effects of cinnamaldehyde and camphor on mouse TRPA1. Pflugers Arch 465(6):853\u2013864. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00424-012-1204-x","journal-title":"Pflugers Arch"},{"issue":"5","key":"4521_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1080\/14659891.2022.2082335","volume":"27","author":"N Arslan I\u015f\u0131k","year":"2022","unstructured":"Arslan I\u015f\u0131k N, Bilgin H (2022) Determination the effects of black pepper and angelica oil on nicotine craving of students: a randomized controlled pilot trial. J Subst Use 27(5):556\u2013565. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14659891.2022.2082335","journal-title":"J Subst Use"},{"key":"4521_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/anbr.202000111","author":"D Baldassi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Baldassi D, Gabold B, Merkel O (2021) Air-liquid interface cultures of the healthy and diseased human respiratory tract: promises, challenges and future directions. Adv NanoBiomed Res. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/anbr.202000111","journal-title":"Adv NanoBiomed Res"},{"key":"4521_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12030548","author":"FS Bezerra","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bezerra FS, Lanzetti M, Nesi RT et al (2023) Oxidative stress and inflammation in acute and chronic lung injuries. Antioxidants. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/antiox12030548","journal-title":"Antioxidants"},{"key":"4521_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241310451","author":"RD Britt Jr.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Britt RD Jr., Ruwanpathirana A, Ford ML, Lewis BW (2023) Macrophages orchestrate airway inflammation, remodeling, and resolution in asthma. Int J Mol Sci. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms241310451","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"4521_CR6","unstructured":"Cigtrus (2024). www.cigtrus.com. Accessed 17 Sep 2025."},{"issue":"2","key":"4521_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"L278","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00452.2016","volume":"313","author":"PW Clapp","year":"2017","unstructured":"Clapp PW, Pawlak EA, Lackey JT et al (2017) Flavored e-cigarette liquids and cinnamaldehyde impair respiratory innate immune cell function. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 313(2):L278-l292. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/ajplung.00452.2016","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"4521_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"L470","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00304.2018","volume":"316","author":"PW Clapp","year":"2019","unstructured":"Clapp PW, Lavrich KS, van Heusden CA, Lazarowski ER, Carson JL, Jaspers I (2019) Cinnamaldehyde in flavored e-cigarette liquids temporarily suppresses bronchial epithelial cell ciliary motility by dysregulation of mitochondrial function. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 316(3):L470-l486. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/ajplung.00304.2018","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol"},{"issue":"8","key":"4521_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1089\/acm.2012.0537","volume":"19","author":"B Cordell","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cordell B, Buckle J (2013) The effects of aromatherapy on nicotine craving on a U.S. campus: a small comparison study. J Altern Complement Med 19(8):709\u2013713. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/acm.2012.0537","journal-title":"J Altern Complement Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"4521_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1515\/jpem-2015-0248","volume":"29","author":"A Diaz","year":"2016","unstructured":"Diaz A, Luque L, Badar Z, Kornic S, Danon M (2016) Prepubertal gynecomastia and chronic lavender exposure: report of three cases. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 29(1):103\u2013107","journal-title":"J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab"},{"issue":"4","key":"4521_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2106","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.170.4.2106","volume":"170","author":"S Ferretti","year":"2003","unstructured":"Ferretti S, Bonneau O, Dubois GR, Jones CE, Trifilieff A (2003) IL-17, produced by lymphocytes and neutrophils, is necessary for lipopolysaccharide-induced airway neutrophilia: IL-15 as a possible trigger. J Immunol 170(4):2106\u20132112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4049\/jimmunol.170.4.2106","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"4521_CR12","unstructured":"F\u00fcm (2024). https:\/\/tryfum.com.au\/blogs\/fum\/flavored-air-shown-to-be-twice-as-effective-as-nrt-and-nicotine-free-vapes-for-cessation. Accessed 17 Sep 2025"},{"key":"4521_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0256-2024","author":"A Gandhi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Gandhi A, Lee CE, Beaumont AL et al (2025) The respiratory epithelium in the era of vaping: insights from in vitro, in vivo and human studies. Eur Respir Rev. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/16000617.0256-2024","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev"},{"issue":"3","key":"4521_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.05.049","volume":"134","author":"SN Georas","year":"2014","unstructured":"Georas SN, Rezaee F (2014) Epithelial barrier function: at the front line of asthma immunology and allergic airway inflammation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 134(3):509\u2013520","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4521_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0b013e32834ec6eb","volume":"12","author":"T-L Hackett","year":"2012","unstructured":"Hackett T-L (2012) Epithelial\u2013mesenchymal transition in the pathophysiology of airway remodelling in asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 12(1):53\u201359","journal-title":"Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"4521_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2020.105703","volume":"153","author":"RW He","year":"2021","unstructured":"He RW, Braakhuis HM, Vandebriel RJ et al (2021) Optimization of an air-liquid interface in vitro cell co-culture model to estimate the hazard of aerosol exposures. J Aerosol Sci 153:105703. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2020.105703","journal-title":"J Aerosol Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"4521_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"A5876","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm-conference.2024.209.1_MeetingAbstracts.A5876","volume":"209","author":"SE Hernandez","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hernandez SE, Foley FT (2024) A novel case of acute eosinophilic pneumonia associated with an essential oil inhalable device. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 209(1):A5876\u2013A5876. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1164\/ajrccm-conference.2024.209.1_MeetingAbstracts.A5876","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"4521_CR18","unstructured":"IARC (2016) Some drugs and herbal products. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. vol 108. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon. https:\/\/publications.iarc.who.int\/Book-And-Report-Series\/Iarc-Monographs-On-The-Identification-Of-Carcinogenic-Hazards-To-Humans\/Some-Drugs-And-Herbal-Products-2015. Accessed 17 Sep 2025"},{"issue":"12","key":"4521_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2019.3649","volume":"179","author":"SV Jabba","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jabba SV, Jordt SE (2019) Risk analysis for the carcinogen pulegone in mint- and menthol-flavored e-cigarettes and smokeless tobacco products. JAMA Intern Med 179(12):1721\u20131723. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamainternmed.2019.3649","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"key":"4521_CR20","unstructured":"Jarry J (2024) Are F\u00fcm\u2019s essential oils safe to inhale? In: McGill. https:\/\/www.mcgill.ca\/oss\/article\/critical-thinking-health-and-nutrition-pseudoscience\/are-fums-essential-oils-safe-inhale Accessed 17 Sep 2025"},{"issue":"6","key":"4521_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.02.018","volume":"145","author":"A Kicic","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kicic A, de Jong E, Ling KM et al (2020) Assessing the unified airway hypothesis in children via transcriptional profiling of the airway epithelium. J Allergy Clin Immunol 145(6):1562\u20131573. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.02.018","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"issue":"5","key":"4521_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI0215217","volume":"109","author":"MR Knowles","year":"2002","unstructured":"Knowles MR, Boucher RC (2002) Mucus clearance as a primary innate defense mechanism for mammalian airways. J Clin Invest 109(5):571\u2013577","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"4521_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmcr.2022.101657","volume":"37","author":"T Kodama","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kodama T, Watanabe T, Mataki N, Kanoh S, Kichikawa Y (2022) Acute eosinophilic pneumonia following aromatherapy with essential oil. Respir Med Case Rep 37:101657. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.rmcr.2022.101657","journal-title":"Respir Med Case Rep"},{"issue":"10","key":"4521_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2390","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2101085","volume":"208","author":"TS Kountz","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kountz TS, Biyasheva A, Schleimer RP, Prakriya M (2022) Extracellular nucleotides and histamine suppress TLR3- and RIG-I-mediated release of antiviral IFNs from human airway epithelial cells. J Immunol 208(10):2390\u20132402. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4049\/jimmunol.2101085","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"key":"4521_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155016","volume":"832","author":"KR Landwehr","year":"2022","unstructured":"Landwehr KR, Hillas J, Mead-Hunter R et al (2022) Toxicity of different biodiesel exhausts in primary human airway epithelial cells grown at air-liquid interface. Sci Total Environ 832:155016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155016","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"4521_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13040631","volume":"13","author":"C-Y Lee","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lee C-Y, Lin L-Y, Chuang H-C, Ho KF, Chuang KJ (2022) Long-term exposure to essential oils and cardiopulmonary health from a population-based study. Atmosphere 13:631. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/atmos13040631","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"issue":"1","key":"4521_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-025-02249-0","volume":"10","author":"C Lee","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lee C, Kim M-J, Kumar A, Lee H-W, Yang Y, Kim Y (2025) Vascular endothelial growth factor signaling in health and disease: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic perspectives. Signal Transduct Target Ther 10(1):170. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41392-025-02249-0","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther"},{"key":"4521_CR28","unstructured":"Lio (2024). https:\/\/breathelio.com\/pages\/trustscience. Accessed Feb 18 2026."},{"key":"4521_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2023.122730","volume":"339","author":"Y Liu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Liu Y, Lu L, Yang H et al (2023) Dysregulation of immunity by cigarette smoking promotes inflammation and cancer: a review. Environ Pollut 339:122730. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envpol.2023.122730","journal-title":"Environ Pollut"},{"issue":"7","key":"4521_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1080\/01902148.2016.1235237","volume":"42","author":"K Looi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Looi K, Troy NM, Garratt LW et al (2016) Effect of human rhinovirus infection on airway epithelium tight junction protein disassembly and transepithelial permeability. Exp Lung Res 42(7):380\u2013395","journal-title":"Exp Lung Res"},{"key":"4521_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-4729-7_5","volume":"464","author":"H Loza-Tavera","year":"1999","unstructured":"Loza-Tavera H (1999) Monoterpenes in essential oils. Biosynthesis and properties. Adv Exp Med Biol 464:49\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4615-4729-7_5","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4521_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17971","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-17952-4","volume":"7","author":"KM Martinovich","year":"2017","unstructured":"Martinovich KM, Iosifidis T, Buckley AG et al (2017) Conditionally reprogrammed primary airway epithelial cells maintain morphology, lineage and disease specific functional characteristics. Sci Rep 7(1):17971","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"4521_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cophys.2021.06.001","volume":"22","author":"JA Masso-Silva","year":"2021","unstructured":"Masso-Silva JA, Byun MK, Crotty Alexander LE (2021) Acute and chronic effects of vaping electronic devices on lung physiology and inflammation. Curr Opin Physiol 22:100447. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cophys.2021.06.001","journal-title":"Curr Opin Physiol"},{"key":"4521_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2020.115238","volume":"407","author":"V Nair","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nair V, Tran M, Behar RZ et al (2020) Menthol in electronic cigarettes: a contributor to respiratory disease? Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 407:115238. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.taap.2020.115238","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"issue":"5","key":"4521_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1124\/molpharm.120.000047","volume":"98","author":"ND Nguyen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nguyen ND, Memon TA, Burrell KL et al (2020) Transient receptor potential ankyrin-1 and vanilloid-3 differentially regulate endoplasmic reticulum stress and cytotoxicity in human lung epithelial cells after pneumotoxic wood smoke particle exposure. Mol Pharmacol 98(5):586\u2013597. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1124\/molpharm.120.000047","journal-title":"Mol Pharmacol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4521_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/08958370600985768","volume":"19","author":"DS Olivera","year":"2007","unstructured":"Olivera DS, Boggs SE, Beenhouwer C, Aden J, Knall C (2007) Cellular mechanisms of mainstream cigarette smoke-induced lung epithelial tight junction permeability changes in vitro. Inhal Toxicol 19(1):13\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08958370600985768","journal-title":"Inhal Toxicol"},{"issue":"2","key":"4521_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1172\/jci123524","volume":"129","author":"AA Pezzulo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pezzulo AA, Tudas RA, Stewart CG et al (2019) HSP90 inhibitor geldanamycin reverts IL-13- and IL-17-induced airway goblet cell metaplasia. J Clin Invest 129(2):744\u2013758. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1172\/jci123524","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"issue":"5","key":"4521_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"L580","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00135.2023","volume":"325","author":"A Raduka","year":"2023","unstructured":"Raduka A, Gao N, Chatburn RL, Rezaee F (2023) Electronic cigarette exposure disrupts airway epithelial barrier function and exacerbates viral infection. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 325(5):L580-l593. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/ajplung.00135.2023","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol"},{"issue":"7","key":"4521_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"L650","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00360.2014","volume":"308","author":"CV Ramana","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ramana CV, DeBerge MP, Kumar A, Alia CS, Durbin JE, Enelow RI (2015) Inflammatory impact of IFN-\u03b3 in CD8+ T cell-mediated lung injury is mediated by both Stat1-dependent and -independent pathways. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 308(7):L650\u2013L657. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/ajplung.00360.2014","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol"},{"issue":"7","key":"4521_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1588","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntw019","volume":"18","author":"K Rosbrook","year":"2016","unstructured":"Rosbrook K, Green BG (2016) Sensory effects of menthol and nicotine in an e-cigarette. Nicotine Tob Res 18(7):1588\u20131595. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ntr\/ntw019","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"4521_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0376-8716(94)90160-0","volume":"34","author":"JE Rose","year":"1994","unstructured":"Rose JE, Behm FM (1994) Inhalation of vapor from black pepper extract reduces smoking withdrawal symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend 34(3):225\u2013229. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0376-8716(94)90160-0","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"4521_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2021.01.029","volume":"132","author":"W Skronska-Wasek","year":"2021","unstructured":"Skronska-Wasek W, Durlanik S, Garnett JP, Pflanz S (2021) Polarized cytokine release from airway epithelium differentially influences macrophage phenotype. Mol Immunol 132:142\u2013149. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.molimm.2021.01.029","journal-title":"Mol Immunol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4521_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfac021","volume":"187","author":"AP Tackett","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tackett AP, Rebuli ME (2022) Alternative flavored inhalable products\u2014a new respiratory hazard? Toxicol Sci 187(1):1\u20132. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/toxsci\/kfac021","journal-title":"Toxicol Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"4521_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.87.463","volume":"87","author":"K Takatsu","year":"2011","unstructured":"Takatsu K (2011) Interleukin-5 and IL-5 receptor in health and diseases. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci 87(8):463\u2013485. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2183\/pjab.87.463","journal-title":"Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci"},{"key":"4521_CR45","volume-title":"Essential oil safety: a guide for health care professionals","author":"R Tisserand","year":"2013","unstructured":"Tisserand R, Young R (2013) Essential oil safety: a guide for health care professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences"},{"issue":"11","key":"4521_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11112786","volume":"11","author":"M Valdivieso-Ugarte","year":"2019","unstructured":"Valdivieso-Ugarte M, Gomez-Llorente C, Plaza-D\u00edaz J, Gil \u00c1 (2019) Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties of essential oils: a systematic review. Nutrients 11(11):2786","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"4521_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2016.06.006","volume":"786","author":"L-L Wang","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wang L-L, Zhao R, Li J-Y et al (2016) Pharmacological activation of cannabinoid 2 receptor attenuates inflammation, fibrogenesis, and promotes re-epithelialization during skin wound healing. Eur J Pharmacol 786:128\u2013136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ejphar.2016.06.006","journal-title":"Eur J Pharmacol"},{"issue":"12","key":"4521_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4434","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.11-188383","volume":"25","author":"DN Willis","year":"2011","unstructured":"Willis DN, Liu B, Ha MA, Jordt SE, Morris JB (2011) Menthol attenuates respiratory irritation responses to multiple cigarette smoke irritants. FASEB J 25(12):4434\u20134444. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1096\/fj.11-188383","journal-title":"FASEB J"},{"issue":"2","key":"4521_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2005.05.026","volume":"129","author":"K Wright","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wright K, Rooney N, Feeney M et al (2005) Differential expression of cannabinoid receptors in the human colon: cannabinoids promote epithelial wound healing. Gastroenterology 129(2):437\u2013453. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/j.gastro.2005.05.026","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"issue":"4","key":"4521_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21688370.2017.1367458","volume":"5","author":"H Yuksel","year":"2017","unstructured":"Yuksel H, Turkeli A (2017) Airway epithelial barrier dysfunction in the pathogenesis and prognosis of respiratory tract diseases in childhood and adulthood. Tissue Barriers 5(4):e1367458. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21688370.2017.1367458","journal-title":"Tissue Barriers"},{"key":"4521_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8878927","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8878927","volume":"2020","author":"X Zuo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zuo X, Gu Y, Wang C et al (2020) A systematic review of the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties of 16 essential oils of herbs. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2020:8878927. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2020\/8878927","journal-title":"Evid Based Complement Alternat Med"}],"container-title":["Archives of Toxicology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00204-026-04521-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00204-026-04521-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00204-026-04521-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T20:40:35Z","timestamp":1786567235000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00204-026-04521-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"references-count":51,"alternative-id":["4521"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00204-026-04521-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["0340-5761","1432-0738"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0340-5761","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-0738","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 July 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 August 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"12 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study was approved by the Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee (HRE2025-0175) and performed in accordance with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All participants gave informed consent prior to inclusion in the study.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Informed consent","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Primary nasal airway epithelial cells were obtained via nasal brushing from participants in the CONQUER cohort study (RGS0000004379) under ethics approval RGS0000004379.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Cell line declaration","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}