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It poses a significant global health burden and affects individuals regardless of biological sex. HF can be caused by various differing etiologies exhibiting different rates of disease progression and mortality. Treatment of HF is often approached using a one-size-fits-all strategy that overlooks sex and gender differences, relying solely on left ventricular ejection fraction as the clinical parameter. This is due to a lack of evidence and subsequent missing deepened understanding of nuances of disease manifestation, course, and outcome. Biological sex (defined as biological aspects of having female or male body) and gender (society norms and roles of women and men) are known to substantially influence prognosis, age of disease onset, as well as severity in CV disease and subsequent HF. However, varying quality and availability of supporting evidence and subsequently unmet diagnostic and therapeutic needs exist for general HF and cardiomyopathy (CM) management. This review aims to elucidate the influence of sex and gender on the development and treatment of HF and CM as a basis for advancing personalized diagnosis and treatment strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-026-05029-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T04:52:21Z","timestamp":1771044741000},"page":"10975-10989","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Gender- and sex-dependent variations in heart failure and cardiomyopathies: a review of the literature"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"399","author":[{"given":"Tobias","family":"Lerchner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Svenja","family":"Ro\u00df","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Florian","family":"Buehning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Vogel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tienush","family":"Rassaf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lars","family":"Michel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"5029_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-024-10386-x","volume":"29","author":"A Aimo","year":"2024","unstructured":"Aimo A et al (2024a) Disease features and management of cardiomyopathies in women. 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T.L. is a co-founder of Varoli, a company focussing on lab-waste recycling. T.L. reports research funding from Stiftung Universitaetsmedizin Essen. T.R. reports personal fees and others from Edwards, Novartis, Bristol Myers Squibb, Bayer, Daiichi Sankyo, and AstraZeneca and Pfizer outside of the submitted work. T.R. is a co-founder of Bimyo, a company focusing on the development of cardioprotective peptides. T.R. is co-founder of Mycor GmbH, a company focusing on the development of AI-based ECG-algorithms. L.M. reports personal fees from Bayer, Alnylam, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Pfizer, IFFM e.V., and from Bund der Niedergelassenen Kardiologen (BNK) outside of the submitted work. L.M. reports research funding from Bayer for an investigator\/institution sponsored collaborative study outside the submitted work. L.M. reports research funding from Stiftung Universitaetsmedizin Essen. All other authors report no conflict of interest.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}