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However, human users frequently consume multiple drugs, potentially altering their motivation and affective response.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study investigated how individual rats differentially self-administer cocaine and heroin, and whether motivation to take each drug was associated with affective states, as indicated by ultrasonic vocalisations (USVs). We also determined whether opioid antagonism (via naltrexone), which is known to decrease heroin-taking and associated USVs, also altered motivation and vocalisations for cocaine.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Male Lister Hooded rats, with surgically implanted catheters, self-administered cocaine and heroin on alternating days. Motivation was evaluated via drug intake escalation (fixed-ratio schedule), behavioural adaptation to dose reductions (behavioural economics), and progressive ratio breakpoints (with or without naltrexone). USVs were recorded and analysed using machine learning software (DeepSqueak).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Rats escalated intake of both drugs during training. At the start of each session, rats rapidly self-administered cocaine or heroin; this drug-loading behaviour was associated with an increase in 50\u00a0kHz vocalisations. Rats altered their cocaine and heroin intake when drug doses decreased, and this was accompanied by reduced 50\u00a0kHz USVs. Lastly, naltrexone reduced progressive ratio breakpoints for heroin but not cocaine; naltrexone also decreased 50\u00a0kHz USVs for heroin (an effect which persisted).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Distinct patterns emerged in motivation and USVs between cocaine and heroin self-administration. Notably, USV frequency did not consistently align with motivation, especially when drug dosage changed. Future research may clarify this divergence.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-025-06821-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]],"date-time":"2025-06-09T00:31:19Z","timestamp":1749429079000},"page":"2665-2684","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Alternating self-administration sessions of cocaine and heroin impact drug-related motivation and vocalisations in rats"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"242","author":[{"given":"Kristian","family":"Adamatzky","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angharad C.","family":"Collins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aldo","family":"Badiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3474-6137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bryan F.","family":"Singer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"6821_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-016-0373-0","volume":"30","author":"E Aboujaoude","year":"2016","unstructured":"Aboujaoude E, Salame WO (2016) Naltrexone: A Pan-Addiction treatment?? 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