{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:16:53Z","timestamp":1788481013874,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759968000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759968000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Extramural Research Fellowship from Nihon Fukushi University"},{"name":"Leverhulme Trust ECF"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Exp Brain Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Humans control their body movements by exploiting gravity to minimise muscle effort while achieving task goals. Most of these findings have been observed in physical environments, although some have also been confirmed in virtual environments. However, research using virtual environments to explore gravity-related motor control mechanisms has yet to directly compare motor performance between virtual and physical environments. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine in detail the potential differences in upper-limb pointing movements between virtual and physical environments. To this end, participants performed pointing tasks in four directions (upward, downward, leftward, and rightward, from an allocentric perspective) in both upright and lying postures, under both virtual and physical conditions. Our results showed that relative duration to peak velocity\u2014a well-established kinematic indicator of gravity utilisation\u2014was consistently shorter for upward than for downward movements across both environments and both postures. However, no differences were observed between the two environments when posture and movement direction were held constant. Furthermore, no differences were observed between the environments in terms of whole velocity and acceleration profiles, as well as in movement duration, peak velocity, peak acceleration, peak deceleration, and the relative durations to peak acceleration and peak deceleration. The similarity in relative duration to peak velocity between virtual and physical environments suggests that the effects of gravity on pointing movements can be reliably assessed in virtual environments as in physical ones. This supports the use of virtual environments as valid tools for studying pointing movements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-025-07162-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T08:36:36Z","timestamp":1759998996000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A comparison of pointing movement kinematics between virtual and physical environments"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"243","author":[{"given":"Shinji","family":"Yamamoto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gavin","family":"Buckingham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"Arthur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Harris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"7162_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-021-00603-5","volume":"26","author":"S Arlati","year":"2022","unstructured":"Arlati S, Keijsers N, Paolini G, Ferrigno G, Sacco M (2022) Kinematics of aimed movements in ecological immersive virtual reality: a comparative study with real world. Virtual Real 26:885\u2013901. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10055-021-00603-5","journal-title":"Virtual Real"},{"issue":"9","key":"7162_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2168","DOI":"10.1177\/1747021819835808","volume":"72","author":"G Buckingham","year":"2019","unstructured":"Buckingham G (2019) Examining the size\u2013weight illusion with visuo-haptic conflict in immersive virtual reality. Q J Exp Psychol 72(9):2168\u20132175. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1747021819835808","journal-title":"Q J Exp Psychol"},{"issue":"7","key":"7162_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1797","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-023-06639-0","volume":"241","author":"K Brock","year":"2023","unstructured":"Brock K, Vine SJ, Ross JM, Trevarthen M, Harris DJ (2023) Movement kinematic and postural control differences when performing a visuomotor skill in real and virtual environments. Exp Brain Res 241(7):1797\u20131810. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00221-023-06639-0","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"7162_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-9457(93)90016-I","volume":"12","author":"H Carnahan","year":"1993","unstructured":"Carnahan H, Goodale MA, Marteniuk RG (1993) Grasping versus pointing and the differential use of visual feedback. Hum Mov Sci 12(3):219\u2013234. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0167-9457(93)90016-I","journal-title":"Hum Mov Sci"},{"issue":"11","key":"7162_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/s1364-6613(00)01537-0","volume":"4","author":"M Desmurget","year":"2000","unstructured":"Desmurget M, Grafton S (2000) Forward modeling allows feedback control for fast reaching movements. Trends Cogn Sci 4(11):423\u2013431. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s1364-6613(00)01537-0","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"7162_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-019-0525-9","volume":"16","author":"MP Furmanek","year":"2019","unstructured":"Furmanek MP, Schettino LF, Yarossi M, Kirkman S, Adamovich SV, Tunik E (2019) Coordination of reach-to-grasp in physical and haptic-free virtual environments. J Neuroeng Rehabil 16(1):1\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12984-019-0525-9","journal-title":"J Neuroeng Rehabil"},{"key":"7162_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.16394","volume":"5","author":"J Gaveau","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gaveau J, Berret B, Angelaki DE, Papaxanthis C (2016) Direction-dependent arm kinematics reveal optimal integration of gravity cues. Elife 5:e16394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.16394","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"1","key":"7162_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.01029.2012","volume":"111","author":"J Gaveau","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gaveau J, Berret B, Demougeot L, Fadiga L, Pozzo T, Papaxanthis C (2014) Energy-related optimal control accounts for gravitational load: comparing shoulder, elbow, and wrist rotations. J Neurophysiol 111(1):4\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/jn.01029.2012","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"15","key":"7162_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abf7800","volume":"7","author":"J Gaveau","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gaveau J, Grospretre S, Berret B, Angelaki DE, Papaxanthis C (2021) A cross-species neural integration of gravity for motor optimization. Sci Adv 7(15):eabf7800. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/sciadv.abf7800","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"issue":"7","key":"7162_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0022045","volume":"6","author":"J Gaveau","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gaveau J, Papaxanthis C (2011) The temporal structure of vertical arm movements. PLoS ONE 6(7):e22045. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0022045","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"1","key":"7162_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2006.11.035","volume":"145","author":"R Gentili","year":"2007","unstructured":"Gentili R, Cahouet V, Papaxanthis C (2007) Motor planning of arm movements is direction-dependent in the gravity field. Neuroscience 145(1):20\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2006.11.035","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1","key":"7162_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22307","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78378-z","volume":"10","author":"M Giesel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Giesel M, Nowakowska A, Harris JM, Hesse C (2020) Perceptual uncertainty and action consequences independently affect hand movements in a virtual environment. Sci Rep 10(1):22307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-020-78378-z","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"11","key":"7162_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2761","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-019-05642-8","volume":"237","author":"DJ Harris","year":"2019","unstructured":"Harris DJ, Buckingham G, Wilson MR, Vine SJ (2019) Virtually the same? How impaired sensory information in virtual reality may disrupt vision for action. Exp Brain Res 237(11):2761\u20132766. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00221-019-05642-8","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"7162_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00203","volume":"11","author":"B J\u00f6rges","year":"2017","unstructured":"J\u00f6rges B, L\u00f3pez-Moliner J (2017) Gravity as a strong prior: implications for perception and action. Front Hum Neurosci 11:203. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00203","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"7162_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2007.07.034","volume":"423","author":"AB Le Seac\u2019h","year":"2007","unstructured":"Le Seac\u2019h AB, McIntyre J (2007) Multimodal reference frame for the planning of vertical arms movements. Neurosci Lett 423(3):211\u2013215. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neulet.2007.07.034","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"issue":"1","key":"7162_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2011.05.015","volume":"138","author":"EC Magdalon","year":"2011","unstructured":"Magdalon EC, Michaelsen SM, Quevedo AA, Levin MF (2011) Comparison of grasping movements made by healthy subjects in a 3-dimensional immersive virtual versus physical environment. Acta Psychol 138(1):126\u2013134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actpsy.2011.05.015","journal-title":"Acta Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"7162_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(71)90067-4","volume":"9","author":"RC Oldfield","year":"1971","unstructured":"Oldfield RC (1971) The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia 9(1):97\u2013113. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0028-3932(71)90067-4","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"issue":"2","key":"7162_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2005.06.063","volume":"135","author":"C Papaxanthis","year":"2005","unstructured":"Papaxanthis C, Pozzo T, McIntyre J (2005) Kinematic and dynamic processes for the control of pointing movements in humans revealed by short-term exposure to microgravity. Neuroscience 135(2):371\u2013383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2005.06.063","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"issue":"4","key":"7162_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-002-1327-y","volume":"148","author":"C Papaxanthis","year":"2003","unstructured":"Papaxanthis C, Pozzo T, Schieppati M (2003) Trajectories of arm pointing movements on the sagittal plane vary with both direction and speed. Exp Brain Res 148(4):498\u2013503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00221-002-1327-y","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"issue":"10","key":"7162_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1976","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2010.03.008","volume":"43","author":"TC Pataky","year":"2010","unstructured":"Pataky TC (2010) Generalized n-dimensional biomechanical field analysis using statistical parametric mapping. J Biomech 43(10):1976\u20131982. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2010.03.008","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"key":"7162_CR21","volume-title":"Statistical parametric mapping: the analysis of functional brain images","year":"2011","unstructured":"Penny WD, Friston KJ, Ashburner JT, Kiebel SJ, Nichols TE (eds) (2011) Statistical parametric mapping: the analysis of functional brain images. Elsevier"},{"key":"7162_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2020.00037","volume":"12","author":"G Poirier","year":"2020","unstructured":"Poirier G, Papaxanthis C, Mourey F, Gaveau J (2020) Motor planning of vertical arm movements in healthy older adults: does effort minimization persist with aging? Front Aging Neurosci 12:37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnagi.2020.00037","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"issue":"4","key":"7162_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00324.2021","volume":"127","author":"G Poirier","year":"2022","unstructured":"Poirier G, Papaxanthis C, Mourey F, Lebigre M, Gaveau J (2022) Muscle effort is best minimized by the right-dominant arm in the gravity field. J Neurophysiol 127(4):1117\u20131126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/jn.00324.2021","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"7162_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Poirier G, Mourey F, Sirandre C, Papaxanthis C, Gaveau J (2023) Speed-dependent optimization of gravity effects for motor control.\u00a0bioRxiv https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2023.03.14.532654","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.03.14.532654"},{"issue":"1","key":"7162_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2014.10.018","volume":"25","author":"MA Robinson","year":"2015","unstructured":"Robinson MA, Vanrenterghem J, Pataky TC (2015) Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) for alpha-based statistical analyses of multi-muscle EMG time-series. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 25(1):14\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jelekin.2014.10.018","journal-title":"J Electromyogr Kinesiol"},{"issue":"12","key":"7162_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3433","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00420.2011","volume":"107","author":"A Sciutti","year":"2012","unstructured":"Sciutti A, Demougeot L, Berret B, Toma S, Sandini G, Papaxanthis C, Pozzo T (2012) Visual gravity influences arm movement planning. J Neurophysiol 107(12):3433\u20133445. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/jn.00420.2011","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"7162_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2021.02.008","volume":"25","author":"JC Snow","year":"2021","unstructured":"Snow JC, Culham JC (2021) The treachery of images: how realism influences brain and behavior. Trends Cogn Sci 25(6):506\u2013519. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2021.02.008","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"19","key":"7162_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2731","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(95)00018-U","volume":"35","author":"JP Wann","year":"1995","unstructured":"Wann JP, Rushton S, Mon-Williams M (1995) Natural problems for stereoscopic depth perception in virtual environments. Vision Res 35(19):2731\u20132736. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0042-6989(95)00018-U","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"issue":"7","key":"7162_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3658","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-022-01983-5","volume":"55","author":"M Warburton","year":"2023","unstructured":"Warburton M, Mon-Williams M, Mushtaq F, Morehead JR (2023) Measuring motion-to-photon latency for sensorimotor experiments with virtual reality systems. Behav Res Methods 55(7):3658\u20133678. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-022-01983-5","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"issue":"1","key":"7162_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00381.2019","volume":"124","author":"O White","year":"2020","unstructured":"White O, Gaveau J, Bringoux L, Crevecoeur F (2020) The gravitational imprint on sensorimotor planning and control. J Neurophysiol 124(1):4\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/jn.00381.2019","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"7162_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-013-3783-y","volume":"232","author":"S Yamamoto","year":"2014","unstructured":"Yamamoto S, Kushiro K (2014) Direction-dependent differences in temporal kinematics for vertical prehension movements. Exp Brain Res 232(2):703\u2013711. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00221-013-3783-y","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"}],"container-title":["Experimental Brain Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00221-025-07162-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00221-025-07162-0\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00221-025-07162-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T15:47:36Z","timestamp":1762012056000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00221-025-07162-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["7162"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00221-025-07162-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["0014-4819","1432-1106"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0014-4819","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-1106","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]]},"assertion":[{"value":"26 June 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 September 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"9 October 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"226"}}