{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T19:30:50Z","timestamp":1793475050951,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791590400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":9,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TTK20110815000024620"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TTK20110815000024620"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Department of Higher Education and Training, and the Tshwane University of Technology","award":["SGD14040966243"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SGD14040966243"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/037mrss42","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Environmental Management"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Biodiversity across Africa faces escalating threats from agricultural expansion, urbanisation, resource overexploitation, and pollution, particularly at the margins of protected areas (PAs). These land\u2011use changes intensify interactions between people and wildlife by compressing habitats, increasing competition for space and resources, and disrupting ecological processes, thereby exacerbating human\u2013wildlife conflict and threatening conservation outcomes. In this context, conservation practitioners play an important role in managing these conflicts by implementing conservation management interventions. A total of 49 conservation practitioners across KwaZulu\u2011Natal, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga in South Africa were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to document the implementation of key conservation measures and to examine their association with practitioner-reported poaching occurrence. Most reserves implemented perimeter fencing and shared boundaries with adjacent local communities. Community engagement and environmental education programmes were also widely reported. The proportion of practitioners reporting poaching was highest in KwaZulu\u2011Natal (84.2%), followed by Limpopo (71%) and Mpumalanga (61.5%). Binary logistic regression revealed that community engagement was significantly associated with lower odds of poaching. Sustaining PAs requires integrated strategies that combine enforcement, community engagement, and adaptive management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-026-02634-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T21:42:12Z","timestamp":1791668532000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Conservation Practitioners\u2019 Perspectives on Management Responses to Poaching in South African Protected Areas"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"76","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9336-9813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ndivhuwo","family":"Shivambu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3157-4712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tinyiko Cavin","family":"Shivambu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9823-075X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takalani","family":"Nelufule","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9929-1722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tsireledzo Goodwill","family":"Makwarela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8039-3251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tshifhiwa Constance","family":"Nangammbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4851-8576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nimmi","family":"Seoraj-Pillai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"2634_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1505\/146554821833992776","volume":"23","author":"S Adeyanju","year":"2021","unstructured":"Adeyanju S, O\u2019connor A, Addoah T, Bayala E, Djoudi H, Moombe K, Reed J, Ros-Tonen M, Siangulube F, Sikanwe A, Sunderland T (2021) Learning from community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) in Ghana and Zambia: lessons for integrated landscape approaches. Int Forestry Rev 23(3):273\u2013297. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1505\/146554821833992776.","journal-title":"Int Forestry Rev"},{"key":"2634_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892907004018","volume":"34","author":"BP Anthony","year":"2007","unstructured":"Anthony BP (2007) The dual nature of parks: attitudes of neighbouring communities towards Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environ Conserv 34:236\u2013245. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0376892907004018.","journal-title":"Environ Conserv"},{"issue":"3","key":"2634_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-4923.73812","volume":"8","author":"BP Anthony","year":"2010","unstructured":"Anthony BP, Scott P, Antypas A (2010) Sitting on the fence? Policies and practices in managing human-wildlife conflict in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Conserv Soc 8(3):225\u2013240. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/0972-4923.73812.","journal-title":"Conserv Soc"},{"issue":"12","key":"2634_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-022-00970-0","volume":"5","author":"MR Appleton","year":"2022","unstructured":"Appleton MR, Courtiol A, Emerton L, Slade JL, Tilker A, Warr LC, Malvido M\u00c1, Barborak JR, de Bruin L, Chapple R, Daltry C, Hadley NP, Jordan CA, Rousset FR, Singh RS, Sterling EJ, Wessling EG, Long B (2022) Protected area personnel and ranger numbers are insufficient to deliver global expectations. Nat Sustainabil 5(12):1100\u20131110. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41893-022-00970-0.","journal-title":"Nat Sustainabil"},{"issue":"2","key":"2634_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s40823-023-00086-x","volume":"8","author":"AO Ayeni","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ayeni AO, Aborisade AG, Onuminya TO, Soneye ASO, Ogundipe OT (2023) Urban development in Africa and impact on biodiversity. Curr Landsc Ecol Rep 8(2):73\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40823-023-00086-x.","journal-title":"Curr Landsc Ecol Rep"},{"issue":"5","key":"2634_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1108\/14777830710778292","volume":"18","author":"C Ayoo","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ayoo C (2007) Community-based natural resource management in Kenya. Manag Environ Qual: Int J 18(5):531\u2013541. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/14777830710778292.","journal-title":"Manag Environ Qual: Int J"},{"key":"2634_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1890\/110205","volume":"11","author":"NC Ban","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ban NC, Mills M, Tam J, Hicks CC, Klain S, Stoeckl N, Bottrill MC, Levine J, Pressey RL, Satterfield T, Chan KM (2013) A social\u2013ecological approach to conservation planning: embedding social considerations. Front Ecol Environ 11:194\u2013202.","journal-title":"Front Ecol Environ"},{"key":"2634_CR8","unstructured":"Baral K (2023) Human-wildlife conflict outside protected areas: drivers, consequences, and mitigation strategies. PhD thesis, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand"},{"issue":"2","key":"2634_CR9","first-page":"411","volume":"2","author":"D Brockington","year":"2004","unstructured":"Brockington D (2004) Community conservation, inequality and injustice: Myths of power in protected area management. Conserv Soc 2(2):411\u2013432.","journal-title":"Conserv Soc"},{"key":"2634_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Carius FH Job (2021) Community involvement and tourism revenue sharing as contributing factors to the UN Sustainable Development Goals in Jozani\u2013Chwaka Bay National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Zanzibar. In S. Snyman, SKS Bricker. Living on the Edge. Routledge, pp.122\u2013142. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781003145516.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003145516"},{"key":"2634_CR11","unstructured":"Carruthers J (1995) The Kruger National Park: a social and political history. Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press"},{"issue":"3","key":"2634_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892910000512","volume":"37","author":"B Child","year":"2010","unstructured":"Child B, Barnes G (2010) The conceptual evolution and practice of community-based natural resource management in southern Africa: past, present and future. Environ Conserv 37(3):283\u2013295. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0376892910000512.","journal-title":"Environ Conserv"},{"issue":"3","key":"2634_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1111\/conl.12294","volume":"10","author":"R Cooney","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cooney R, Roe D, Dublin H, Phelps J, Wilkie D, Keane A, Travers H, Skinner D, Challender DW, Allan JR, Biggs D (2017) From poachers to protectors: engaging local communities in solutions to illegal wildlife trade. Conserv Lett 10(3):367\u2013374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/conl.12294.","journal-title":"Conserv Lett"},{"issue":"5","key":"2634_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1458","DOI":"10.1111\/cobi.12538","volume":"29","author":"R Critchlow","year":"2015","unstructured":"Critchlow R, Plumptre AJ, Driciru M, Rwetsiba A, Stokes EJ, Tumwesigye C, Wanyama F, Beale CM (2015) Spatiotemporal trends of illegal activities from ranger-collected data in a Ugandan national park. Conserv Biol 29(5):1458\u20131470. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cobi.12538.","journal-title":"Conserv Biol"},{"key":"2634_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dalpane F, Baideldinova, M (2022) Poaching and wildlife trafficking as threats to international peace and security. In International Conflict and Security Law: A Research Handbook (pp. 861\u2013883). The Hague: TMC Asser Press","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-6265-515-7_40"},{"key":"2634_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"734788","DOI":"10.3390\/su1030734","volume":"1","author":"PA DeGeorges","year":"2009","unstructured":"DeGeorges PA, Reilly BK (2009) The realities of community based natural resource management and biodiversity conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability 1:734788. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su1030734.","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"3","key":"2634_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3390\/land9030065","volume":"9","author":"L Dom\u00ednguez","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dom\u00ednguez L, Luoma C (2020) Decolonising conservation policy: How colonial land and conservation ideologies persist and perpetuate indigenous injustices at the expense of the environment. Land 9(3):65. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/land9030065.","journal-title":"Land"},{"key":"2634_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envdev.2019.100485","volume":"33","author":"K Dube","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dube K, Nhamo G (2020) Evidence and impact of climate change on South African national parks. Potential implications for tourism in the Kruger National Park. Environ Dev 33: 100485. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envdev.2019.100485.","journal-title":"Environ Dev"},{"key":"2634_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13750-020-00195-8","volume":"9","author":"I Duporge","year":"2020","unstructured":"Duporge I, Hodgetts T, Wang T, Macdonald DW (2020) The spatial distribution of illegal hunting of terrestrial mammals in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic map. Environ Evid 9: 15. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13750-020-00195-8.","journal-title":"Environ Evid"},{"issue":"6","key":"2634_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2011.01740.x","volume":"25","author":"M Elbroch","year":"2011","unstructured":"Elbroch M, Mwampamba TH, Santos MJ, Zylberberg M, Liebenberg L, Minye J, Mosser C, Reddy E (2011) The value, limitations, and challenges of employing local experts in conservation research. Conserv Biol 25(6):1195\u20131202. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2011.01740.x.","journal-title":"Conserv Biol"},{"key":"2634_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2018.09.009","volume":"227","author":"AC Ferreguetti","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ferreguetti AC, Pereira-Ribeiro J, Prevedello JA, Tom\u00e1s WM, Rocha CFD, Bergallo HG (2018) One step ahead to predict potential poaching hotspots: Modeling occupancy and detectability of poachers in a neotropical rainforest. Biol Conserv 227:133\u2013140. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biocon.2018.09.009.","journal-title":"Biol Conserv"},{"issue":"3","key":"2634_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2269","DOI":"10.1007\/s10668-018-0288-7","volume":"22","author":"I Gaodirelwe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gaodirelwe I, Masunga GS, Motsholapheko MR (2020) Community-based natural resource management: A promising strategy for reducing subsistence poaching around protected areas, northern Botswana. Environ, Dev Sustainabil 22(3):2269\u20132287. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10668-018-0288-7.","journal-title":"Environ, Dev Sustainabil"},{"key":"2634_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s44338-025-00088-5","volume":"2","author":"L Gayo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Gayo L (2025a) A review of climate change, human population growth and poverty as potential drivers of human wildlife conflicts in Africa. Discov Anim 2:1\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44338-025-00088-5.","journal-title":"Discov Anim"},{"key":"2634_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s44353-025-00047-x","volume":"2","author":"L Gayo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Gayo L (2025b) Community-based conserved areas in advancing sustainable development and conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Discov Conserv 2:1\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44353-025-00047-x.","journal-title":"Discov Conserv"},{"issue":"9","key":"2634_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-8198.2010.00379.x","volume":"4","author":"C Gibbes","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gibbes C, Keys E (2010) The illusion of equity: an examination of community based natural resource management and inequality in Africa. Geogr Compass 4(9):1324\u20131338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1749-8198.2010.00379.x.","journal-title":"Geogr Compass"},{"key":"2634_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcosc.2025.1646126","volume":"6","author":"ZGN Gotyi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Gotyi ZGN, Handi (2025) Exploring community participation in environmental conservation: insights from Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa. Front Conserv Sci 6: 1646126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fcosc.2025.1646126.","journal-title":"Front Conserv Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"2634_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-008-9235-y","volume":"45","author":"JS Gruber","year":"2010","unstructured":"Gruber JS (2010) Key principles of community-based natural resource management: a synthesis and interpretation of identified effective approaches for managing the commons. Environ Manag 45(1):52\u201366.","journal-title":"Environ Manag"},{"issue":"4","key":"2634_CR28","first-page":"1","volume":"8","author":"TK Gumede","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gumede TK, Nzama AT (2019) Ecotourism as a mechanism for local economic development: The case of communities adjacent to the Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Afr J Hosp Tour Leis 8(4):1\u201319.","journal-title":"Afr J Hosp Tour Leis"},{"key":"2634_CR29","unstructured":"Haupt N (2022) The makings of field rangers in Limpopo province: An exploratory ethno-perceptive study. Doctoral dissertation, University of the Free State, South Africa"},{"issue":"5","key":"2634_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10151","DOI":"10.11609\/jott.3212.9.5.10151-10157","volume":"9","author":"EM Hema","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hema EM, Ouattara Y, Karama M, Petrozzi F, Di Vittorio M, Guenda W, Luiselli L (2017) Population dynamics of medium and large mammals in a West African gallery forest area and the potential effects of poaching. J Threatened Taxa 9(5):10151\u201310157. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11609\/jott.3212.9.5.10151-10157.","journal-title":"J Threatened Taxa"},{"key":"2634_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hiller C, M \u2019T Sas-Rolfes (2025) Systematic review of the impact of restrictive wildlife trade measures on conservation of iconic species in southern Africa. Conserv Biol 39(1): e14262. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cobi.14262","DOI":"10.1111\/cobi.14262"},{"key":"2634_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1177\/0011392116673210","volume":"65","author":"AM H\u00fcbschle","year":"2017","unstructured":"H\u00fcbschle AM (2017) The social economy of rhino poaching: Of economic freedom fighters, professional hunters and marginalized local people. Curr Socio 65:427\u2013447.","journal-title":"Curr Socio"},{"key":"2634_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2015.02.001","volume":"189","author":"JS Kahler","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kahler JS, Gore ML (2015) Local perceptions of risk associated with poaching of wildlife implicated in human-wildlife conflicts in Namibia. Biol Conserv 189:49\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biocon.2015.02.001.","journal-title":"Biol Conserv"},{"issue":"1","key":"2634_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8489.12592","volume":"69","author":"TA Kairiza","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kairiza TA, Pallegedara, Chigusiwa L (2025) The interplay of drought, human\u2013wildlife conflict and food security: Insights from rural Zimbabwe. Aust J Agric Resour Econ 69(1):232\u2013250.","journal-title":"Aust J Agric Resour Econ"},{"issue":"10","key":"2634_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/csp2.12791","volume":"4","author":"R Kansky","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kansky R (2022) Unpacking the challenges of wildlife governance in community-based conservation programs to promote human\u2013wildlife coexistence. Conserv Sci Pr 4(10):e12791. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/csp2.12791.","journal-title":"Conserv Sci Pr"},{"issue":"3","key":"2634_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-007-9034-x","volume":"41","author":"T Kepe","year":"2008","unstructured":"Kepe T (2008) Land claims and co-management of protected areas in South Africa: exploring the challenges. Environ Manag 41(3):311\u2013321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00267-007-9034-x.","journal-title":"Environ Manag"},{"key":"2634_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1080\/03057079408708417","volume":"20","author":"F Khan","year":"1994","unstructured":"Khan F (1994) Rewriting South Africa\u2019s conservation history-The role of the Native Farmers Association. J South Afr Stud 20:499\u2013516. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/03057079408708417.","journal-title":"J South Afr Stud"},{"issue":"4","key":"2634_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.3390\/d13040145","volume":"13","author":"L Kolinski","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kolinski L, Milich KM (2021) Human-wildlife conflict mitigation impacts community perceptions around Kibale National Park, Uganda. Diversity 13(4):145. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/d13040145.","journal-title":"Diversity"},{"issue":"2","key":"2634_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.13527","volume":"57","author":"ME Kragt","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kragt ME, Hay E, Scheufele G, Bennett J, Renton M (2020) Predicting the effectiveness of community anti-poaching patrols for conserving threatened wildlife in the Lao PDR. J Appl Ecol 57(2):320\u2013330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1365-2664.13527.","journal-title":"J Appl Ecol"},{"issue":"4","key":"2634_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-008-9181-8","volume":"42","author":"TB Lauber","year":"2008","unstructured":"Lauber TB, Decker DJ, Knuth BA (2008) Social networks and community-based natural resource management. Environ Manag 42(4):677\u2013687. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00267-008-9181-8.","journal-title":"Environ Manag"},{"key":"2634_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"630990","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2021.630990","volume":"9","author":"VM Lavadinovi\u0107","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lavadinovi\u0107 VM, Islas CA, Chatakonda MK, Markovi\u0107 N, Mbiba M (2021) Mapping the research landscape on poaching: A decadal systematic review. Front Ecol Evolution 9:630990.","journal-title":"Front Ecol Evolution"},{"issue":"2","key":"2634_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e14393","DOI":"10.1111\/cobi.14393","volume":"39","author":"Y Li","year":"2025","unstructured":"Li Y, Zhang C, Gao H, Lu M, Nie Y (2025) Effects of expansion of protected areas and habitat transformation on spatiotemporal variation in human\u2013wildlife conflict. Conserv Biol 39(2):e14393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cobi.14393.","journal-title":"Conserv Biol"},{"key":"2634_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lindsey PA, Masterson CL, Beck AL, Roma\u00f1ach S (2012) Ecological, Social and Financial Issues Related to Fencing as a Conservation Tool in Africa. In: M Somers, M Hayward (eds). Fencing for Conservation. Springer, New York, NY, pp.215\u2013234. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4614-0902-1_12.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-0902-1_12"},{"issue":"1","key":"2634_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.2305\/IUCN.CH.2014.PARKS-20-1.WL.en","volume":"20","author":"W Lotter","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lotter W, Clark K, Parks - (2014) Community involvement and joint operations aid effective anti-poaching in Tanzania. Parks 20(1):19\u201328.","journal-title":"Parks"},{"key":"2634_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2020.108505","volume":"245","author":"E Lunstrum","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lunstrum E, Giv\u00e1 N (2020) What drives commercial poaching? From poverty to economic inequality. Biol Conserv 245:108505. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biocon.2020.108505.","journal-title":"Biol Conserv"},{"key":"2634_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Makwarela TG, Nelufule T, Shivambu TC, Shivambu N, Nangammbi TC, Pillay N, Seoraj-Pillai N (2026) Spatial Patterns and Socio-Economic Drivers of Wildlife-Related Loss in South Africa\u2019s Agricultural\u2013Conservation Interface. Sustainability 18:2649. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su18052649.","DOI":"10.3390\/su18052649"},{"key":"2634_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Maseko ZTM, Moyo I (2022) Conflicts between conservation and community livelihoods: Lessons from KwaNibela and iSimangaliso Wetland Park, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. In R Musavengane, L Leonard (1st Eds). Conservation, Land Conflicts and Sustainable Tourism in Southern Africa. Routledge, pp.165\u2013180. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781003188902.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003188902"},{"issue":"2","key":"2634_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-4923.186331","volume":"14","author":"F Mass\u00e9","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mass\u00e9 F (2016) The political ecology of human-wildlife conflict: Producing wilderness, insecurity, and displacement in the Limpopo National Park. Conserv Soc 14(2):100\u2013111. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/0972-4923.186331.","journal-title":"Conserv Soc"},{"issue":"3","key":"2634_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1080\/24694452.2019.1630249","volume":"110","author":"F Mass\u00e9","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mass\u00e9 F (2020) Conservation law enforcement: Policing protected areas. Ann Am Assoc Geogr 110(3):758\u2013773. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/24694452.2019.1630249.","journal-title":"Ann Am Assoc Geogr"},{"key":"2634_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mass\u00e9 F, Gardiner A, Lubilo R, Themba MN (2017) Inclusive anti-poaching? Exploring the potential and challenges of community-based anti-poaching. South African Crime Quarterly 60: 19\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17159\/2413-3108\/2017\/v0n60a1732.","DOI":"10.17159\/2413-3108\/2017\/v0n60a1732"},{"key":"2634_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-013-0114-9","volume":"52","author":"TG Measham","year":"2013","unstructured":"Measham TG, Lumbasi JA (2013) Success factors for community-based natural resource management (CBNRM): Lessons from Kenya and Australia. Environ Manag 52:649\u2013659.","journal-title":"Environ Manag"},{"issue":"1","key":"2634_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.36959\/742\/224","volume":"4","author":"W Mengist","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mengist W (2020) Challenges of protected area management and conservation strategies in Ethiopia: a review paper. Adv Environ Stud 4(1):277\u2013285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.36959\/742\/224.","journal-title":"Adv Environ Stud"},{"key":"2634_CR53","first-page":"e01256","volume":"24","author":"D Milda","year":"2020","unstructured":"Milda D, Ramesh T, Kalle R, Gayathri V, Thanikodi M (2020) Ranger survey reveals conservation issues across Protected and outside Protected Areas in southern India. Glob Ecol Conserv 24:e01256.","journal-title":"Glob Ecol Conserv"},{"issue":"7","key":"2634_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/eap.2397","volume":"31","author":"JFE Moore","year":"2021","unstructured":"Moore JFE, Uzabaho A, Musana P, Uwingeli JE, Hines JD, Nichols (2021) What is the effect of poaching activity on wildlife species?. Ecol Appl 31(7):e02397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/eap.2397.","journal-title":"Ecol Appl"},{"key":"2634_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polgeo.2024.103151","volume":"113","author":"O Mthimkhulu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mthimkhulu O, Nel A (2024) The ethnic-spatial conservation fix: Contradictory tensions between restitution and enclosure within communally owned protected areas in South Africa. Political Geogr 113: 103151. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.polgeo.2024.103151.","journal-title":"Political Geogr"},{"issue":"5","key":"2634_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0177153","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0177153","volume":"12","author":"CN Mutanga","year":"2017","unstructured":"Mutanga CN, Muboko N, Gandiwa E (2017) Protected area staff and local community viewpoints: A qualitative assessment of conservation relationships in Zimbabwe. PloS One 12(5):e0177153. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0177153.","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"2634_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.05.006","volume":"198","author":"VT Mutekwa","year":"2017","unstructured":"Mutekwa VT, Gambiza J (2017) Forest protected areas governance in Zimbabwe: Shift needed away from a long history of local community exclusion. J Environ Manag 198:330\u2013339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.05.006.","journal-title":"J Environ Manag"},{"issue":"2","key":"2634_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.2305\/IUCN.CH.2014.PARKS-20-2.EDN.en","volume":"20","author":"ED Nana","year":"2014","unstructured":"Nana ED, Tchamadeu NN (2014) Socio-economic impacts of protected areas on people living close to the Mount Cameroon National Park. Parks 20(2):129\u2013143. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2305\/IUCN.CH.2014.PARKS-20-2.EDN.en.","journal-title":"Parks"},{"key":"2634_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1080\/13504500209470104","volume":"9","author":"SK Nepal","year":"2002","unstructured":"Nepal SK (2002) Linking parks and people: Nepal\u2019s experience in resolving conflicts in parks and protected areas. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 9:75\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13504500209470104.","journal-title":"Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol"},{"key":"2634_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnc.2023.126532","volume":"77","author":"WA Nieman","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nieman WA, Nieman K (2024) Unveiling poaching patterns and threat sources for informed conservation in southeast Angola. J Nat Conserv 77: 126532. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jnc.2023.126532.","journal-title":"J Nat Conserv"},{"issue":"7","key":"2634_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e14224","DOI":"10.1111\/rec.14224","volume":"32","author":"BJ Nxele","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nxele BJ, Pieterse PJ, Larson DL (2024) Ecosystem restoration coupled with poverty alleviation in eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Restor Ecol 32(7):e14224. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/rec.14224.","journal-title":"Restor Ecol"},{"key":"2634_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-024-02097-8","volume":"75","author":"HP Pandey","year":"2025","unstructured":"Pandey HP, Maraseni TN, Apan A (2025) Insights into ecological resettlements and conservation-led displacements: a systematic review. Environ Manag 75:1281\u20131298. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00267-024-02097-8.","journal-title":"Environ Manag"},{"key":"2634_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2018.10.030","volume":"229","author":"A Pekor","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pekor A, Miller JR, Flyman MV, Kasiki S, Kesch MK, Miller SM, Uiseb K, Van der Merve V, Lindsey PA (2019) Fencing Africa\u2019s protected areas: Costs, benefits, and management issues. Biol Conserv 229:67\u201375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biocon.2018.10.030.","journal-title":"Biol Conserv"},{"issue":"9","key":"2634_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"095015","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/10\/9\/095015","volume":"10","author":"C Perrings","year":"2015","unstructured":"Perrings C, Halkos G (2015) Agriculture and the threat to biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa. Environ Res Lett 10(9):095015. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/1748-9326\/10\/9\/095015.","journal-title":"Environ Res Lett"},{"key":"2634_CR65","unstructured":"R Core Team (2025) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Available at https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/."},{"issue":"8","key":"2634_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0227163","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227163","volume":"15","author":"AA Rija","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rija AA, Critchlow R, Thomas CD, Beale CM (2020) Global extent and drivers of mammal population declines in protected areas under illegal hunting pressure. PLoS One 15(8):e0227163. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0227163.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2634_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rytwinski T, Pickles RS, Muir MJ, Cooke SJ, Bennett JR, Kelly LA, Smith A, Cadet C, Adhiasto DN, Quiroz IA, Booton MD (2026) The evidence base for ranger patrol effectiveness in conservation and how to improve it. Biological Reviews","DOI":"10.1002\/brv.70172"},{"key":"2634_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1023\/B:GEJO.0000017956.82651.41","volume":"58","author":"J Singh","year":"2002","unstructured":"Singh J, Van Houtum H (2002) Post-colonial nature conservation in Southern Africa: same emperors, new clothes?. GeoJournal 58:253\u2013263. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/B:GEJO.0000017956.82651.41.","journal-title":"GeoJournal"},{"key":"2634_CR69","unstructured":"Sinthumule NI (2014) Land use change and bordering in the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area. PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa"},{"key":"2634_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2010.0246","volume":"369","author":"PK Thornton","year":"2011","unstructured":"Thornton PK, Jones PG, Ericksen PJ, Challinor AJ (2011) Agriculture and food systems in sub-Saharan Africa in a 4 C+ world. Philos Trans R Soc A: Math, Phys Eng Sci 369:117\u2013136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsta.2010.0246.","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc A: Math, Phys Eng Sci"},{"issue":"150","key":"2634_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2012.02.017","volume":"4735","author":"M Thorn","year":"2012","unstructured":"Thorn M, Green M, Dalerum F, Bateman PW, Scott DM (2012) What drives human-carnivore conflict in the North-West Province of South-Africa?. Biol Conserv 4735(150):23\u201332.","journal-title":"Biol Conserv"},{"issue":"7656","key":"2634_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/nature22900","volume":"546","author":"D Tilman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Tilman D, Clark M, Williams DR, Kimmel K, Polasky S, Packer C (2017) Future threats to biodiversity and pathways to their prevention. Nature 546(7656):73\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nature22900.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"4","key":"2634_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1080\/713683606","volume":"26","author":"C Twyman","year":"2000","unstructured":"Twyman C (2000) Livelihood opportunity and diversity in Kalahari Wildlife Management Areas, Botswana: rethinking community resource management. J South Afr Stud 26(4):783\u2013806. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/713683606.","journal-title":"J South Afr Stud"},{"key":"2634_CR74","first-page":"864","volume":"58","author":"DP Van Uhm","year":"2018","unstructured":"Van Uhm DP, Moreto WD (2018) Corruption within the illegal wildlife trade: a symbiotic and antithetical enterprise. Br J Criminol 58:864\u2013885.","journal-title":"Br J Criminol"},{"issue":"6437","key":"2634_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav6886","volume":"364","author":"P Visconti","year":"2019","unstructured":"Visconti P, Butchart SH, Brooks TM, Langhammer PF, Marnewick D, Vergara S, Yanosky A, Watson JE (2019) Protected area targets post-2020. Science 364(6437):239\u2013241. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aav6886.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2634_CR76","first-page":"83","volume":"36","author":"G Warchol","year":"2012","unstructured":"Warchol G, Kapla D (2012) Policing the wilderness: A descriptive study of wildlife conservation officers in South Africa. Int J Comp Appl Crim Justice 36:83\u2013101.","journal-title":"Int J Comp Appl Crim Justice"},{"issue":"4","key":"2634_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1177\/10704965221121026","volume":"31","author":"M Wenborn","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wenborn M, Svensson MS, Katupa S, Collinson R, Nijman V (2022) Lessons on the community conservancy model for wildlife protection in Namibia. J Environ Dev 31(4):375\u2013394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10704965221121026.","journal-title":"J Environ Dev"},{"issue":"9","key":"2634_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2535","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11092535","volume":"11","author":"J Wentzel","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wentzel J, Gall C, Bourn M, De Beer J, Du Plessis F, Fosgate GT (2021) Carnivore detection at the domestic\/wildlife interface within Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Animals 11(9):2535. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani11092535.","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"2634_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1017\/S1367943004001829","volume":"8","author":"R Woodroffe","year":"2005","unstructured":"Woodroffe R, Frank LG (2005) Lethal control of African lions (Panthera leo): local and regional impacts. Anim Conserv 8:91\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1367943004001829.","journal-title":"Anim Conserv"}],"container-title":["Environmental Management"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00267-026-02634-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00267-026-02634-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00267-026-02634-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T18:30:14Z","timestamp":1793471414000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00267-026-02634-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["2634"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00267-026-02634-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["0364-152X","1432-1009"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0364-152X","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-1009","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"9 March 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 September 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 October 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}},{"value":"Ethical approval for this research was granted by the Human Ethics Research Committee (HREC) at the University of the Witwatersrand, under protocol number H120807.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethical consideration","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}}],"article-number":"338"}}