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Global warming has increased the frequency, duration, and intensity of heatwaves, while substantial cold-related risk persists, particularly in poorly insulated and socioeconomically vulnerable settings. Together, non-optimal temperatures account for millions of deaths annually, with a large and growing share attributable to CVD. In this narrative review, we synthesize epidemiological, mechanistic, and systems-level evidence linking heat and cold exposure to chronic cardiovascular outcomes, with a focus on ischemic heart disease, stroke, heart failure, and arrhythmias. We first outline key temperature metrics, shifting climate patterns, and challenges in exposure assessment, including the roles of humidity, diurnal variability, and indoor versus outdoor environments. We then summarize the epidemiology of temperature, CVD associations across diverse regions, highlighting U- and J-shaped exposure-response curves and disproportionate impacts in low- and middle-income countries, older adults, and socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. Mechanistic sections examine how heat and cold drive autonomic imbalance, endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, haemoconcentration, changes in coagulation, renal injury, and myocardial oxygen supply\u2013demand mismatch. We further discuss modifying effects of air pollution, wildfires, dust storms, and medication use, including clinically relevant drug-heat interactions in patients with chronic CVD. Finally, we review heat-health and cold-health action plans, health-system resilience frameworks, and emerging research gaps spanning exposure science, mechanistic studies, vulnerable populations, and policy evaluation. Recognising non-optimal temperature exposure as a modifiable environmental risk factor for chronic CVD is essential. Integrating climate-informed prevention, clinical care, and adaptation strategies offers substantial and timely opportunities to reduce cardiovascular burden in a warming and increasingly unstable climate.\u00a0<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:bold>\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Graphical abstract illustrating how non-optimal temperatures, including heatwaves, cold spells, temperature variability, and humidity, contribute to chronic cardiovascular disease through vulnerable populations, interacting environmental exposures, and biological mechanisms such as autonomic dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, thrombosis, renal stress, and circadian disruption. The figure also highlights key chronic cardiovascular outcomes and potential mitigation\/adaptation strategies to reduce health risks.\u00a0\n                    <jats:bold>Note<\/jats:bold>\n                    :\u00a0This graphical abstract was generated with the assistance of ChatGPT.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-026-01085-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T12:23:34Z","timestamp":1790252614000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Non optimal temperatures and chronic cardiovascular diseases"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"48","author":[{"given":"Thomas","family":"M\u00fcnzel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marin","family":"Kuntic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jos","family":"Lelieveld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Molitor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omar","family":"Hahad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Stamm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Daiber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra","family":"Schneider","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"1085_CR1","unstructured":"Brief C (2025) State of the climate: 2025 on track to be second or third warmest year on record"},{"key":"1085_CR2","unstructured":"Adeministration NCfEINOaA (2026) Global Land and Ocean Averge Temperature Anomaly"},{"key":"1085_CR3","first-page":"1182","volume":"39","author":"B Alahmad","year":"2023","unstructured":"Alahmad B, Khraishah H, Althalji K, Borchert W, Al-Mulla F, Koutrakis P (2023) Connections Between Air Pollution, Climate Change, and Cardiovascular Health. 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