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ATIs occur in multiple isoforms which differ in the amounts present in different types\u00a0of wheat (including ancient and modern ones). Measuring ATIs and their isoforms is an analytical challenge as is their isolation for use in studies addressing their potential effects on the human body. ATI isoforms differ in their spectrum of bioactive effects in the human gastrointestinal (GI), which may include enzyme inhibition, inflammation and immune responses and of which much is not known. Similarly, although modifications during food processing (exposure to heat, moisture, salt, acid, fermentation) may affect their structure and activity as shown in vitro, it is important to relate these changes to effects that may present in the GI tract. Finally, much of our knowledge of their potential biological effects is based on studies\u00a0in vitro\u00a0and in animal models. Validation by human studies using processed foods as commonly consumed is warranted. We conclude that more detailed understanding of these factors may allow the effects of ATIs on human health to be better understood and when possible, to be ameliorated, for example by innovative food processing. We therefore review in short our current knowledge of these proteins, focusing on features which relate to their biological activity and identifying gaps in our knowledge and research priorities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-022-02841-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,2]],"date-time":"2022-03-02T14:02:40Z","timestamp":1646229760000},"page":"2873-2880","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":50,"title":["Wheat amylase\/trypsin inhibitors (ATIs): occurrence, function and health aspects"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"61","author":[{"given":"Sabrina","family":"Geisslitz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Weegels","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Shewry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"Zevallos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefania","family":"Masci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Sorrells","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Armando","family":"Gregorini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariastella","family":"Colomba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daisy","family":"Jonkers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"De Giorgio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giacomo P.","family":"Caio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"D\u2019Amico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Colette","family":"Larr\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5907-8388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fred","family":"Brouns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"2841_CR1","first-page":"235","volume":"9","author":"E Kneen","year":"1946","unstructured":"Kneen E, Sandstedt R (1946) Distribution and general properties of an amylase inhibitor in cereals. 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Peter Weegels is employed by the European Bakery Innovation Centre, Sonneveld Group BV, Papendrecht,\u00a0Netherlands.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}]}}