{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,24]],"date-time":"2026-06-24T06:54:01Z","timestamp":1782284041726,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768521600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768521600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100016931","name":"Institute Of Marine Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100016931","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Eur J Nutr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Macroalgae, also called seaweed, may serve as a dietary iodine source, although some species contain high iodine levels and may increase the risk of excessive intake. This non-randomized pre-post clinical trial aimed to assess iodine status, estimated iodine intake and thyroid function in habitual seaweed consumers (pre-intervention), and after a six-week cessation period of seaweed consumption (post-intervention).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Habitual seaweed consumers (n\u2009=\u200949) were recruited by convenience sampling from the two largest cities in Norway. Urinary iodine concentration (UIC), urinary creatinine, iodine intake and thyroid function were assessed pre- and post-intervention. The thyroid function was assessed biochemically by measuring TSH, fT3, fT4 and TPO antibodies in serum. Seaweed intake was assessed using a seaweed specific food frequency questionnaire (FFQ).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The median (p25-p75) UIC and estimated iodine intake was 270 (185\u2013970) \u00b5g\/L and 658 (330\u20131516) \u00b5g\/ day at pre-intervention and decreased substantially to 87 (52\u2013138) \u00b5g\/L and 189 (142\u2013264) \u00b5g\/ day post-intervention. Median estimated iodine intake pre-intervention exceeded the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for iodine, whereas post-intervention the estimated iodine intake was substantially decreased to well below the UL. The median serum TSH decreased significantly after cessation of seaweed consumption (from pre- to post-intervention). The largest decrease in TSH was seen in participants with the highest estimated iodine intakes pre-intervention.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Ingestion of seaweed with high iodine content could potentially pose a risk of exceeding the tolerable upper intake level for iodine. Cessation of seaweed resulted in a significant decrease in TSH in this study.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-025-03813-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T07:33:30Z","timestamp":1768548810000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Impact of habitual seaweed consumption on iodine nutrition and thyroid function: a non-randomized pre-post clinical study"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"65","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3046-1823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inger","family":"Aakre","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elinor Chelsom","family":"Vogt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lene S","family":"Myrmel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne-Katrine","family":"Lundebye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Olivia Bysheim","family":"Helland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sigrun","family":"Henjum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisbeth","family":"Dahl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Wik","family":"Markhus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Synn\u00f8ve N\u00e6ss","family":"Sleire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Silje Jotun","family":"L\u00f8kken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanne","family":"Rosendahl-Riise","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"3813_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/BFJ-01-2023-0024","author":"ML Redway","year":"2023","unstructured":"Redway ML, Combet E (2023) Seaweed as food: survey of the UK market and appraisal of opportunities and risks in the context of iodine nutrition. Br Food J. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/BFJ-01-2023-0024","journal-title":"Br Food J"},{"key":"3813_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.29219\/fnr.v65.7584","author":"I Aakre","year":"2021","unstructured":"Aakre I et al (2021) Commercially available kelp and seaweed products - valuable iodine source or risk of excess intake? Food Nutr Res. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.29219\/fnr.v65.7584","journal-title":"Food Nutr Res"},{"key":"3813_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2021.792923","volume":"8","author":"RE Vellinga","year":"2021","unstructured":"Vellinga RE et al (2021) Increasing seaweed consumption in the Netherlands and Portugal and the consequences for the intake of iodine, sodium, and exposure to chemical contaminants: a risk-benefit study. Front Nutr 8:792923. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnut.2021.792923","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"3813_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.3689","author":"I Aakre","year":"2023","unstructured":"Aakre I et al (2023) Bioavailability of iodine from a meal consisting of sushi and a wakame seaweed salad\u2014a randomized crossover trial. Food Sci Nutr. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/fsn3.3689","journal-title":"Food Sci Nutr"},{"issue":"OCE2","key":"3813_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E716","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665120006655","volume":"79","author":"K Nicol","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nicol K et al (2020) Using seaweed as a supplement or a food ingredient to increase iodine status in women with low habitual intake. Proc Nutr Soc 79(OCE2):E716. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0029665120006655","journal-title":"Proc Nutr Soc"},{"key":"3813_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2007) Assessment of iodine deficiency disorders and monitoring their elimination: a guide for programme managers 3rd edition. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-49505-7_6","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-49505-7_6"},{"issue":"7","key":"3813_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10070930","volume":"10","author":"MH Carlsen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Carlsen MH et al (2018) New iodine food composition database and updated calculations of iodine intake among Norwegians. Nutrients 10(7):930. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu10070930","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"issue":"9","key":"3813_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3035","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI60047","volume":"122","author":"GA Brent","year":"2012","unstructured":"Brent GA (2012) Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action. J Clin Invest 122(9):3035\u20133043. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1172\/JCI60047","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"3813_CR9","volume-title":"Norkost 4","author":"JB Myhre","year":"2024","unstructured":"Myhre JB, Brodin MMA, Andersen LF (2024) Norkost 4. Helsedirektoratet, Oslo"},{"issue":"2","key":"3813_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5020424","volume":"5","author":"AL Brants\u00e6ter","year":"2013","unstructured":"Brants\u00e6ter AL et al (2013) Risk of suboptimal iodine intake in pregnant Norwegian women. Nutrients 5(2):424\u2013440. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu5020424","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"3813_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9070643","author":"S Henjum","year":"2017","unstructured":"Henjum S et al (2017) Suboptimal iodine concentration in breastmilk and inadequate iodine intake among lactating women in Norway. Nutrients. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu9070643","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"issue":"2","key":"3813_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10020230","volume":"10","author":"A Brants\u00e6ter","year":"2018","unstructured":"Brants\u00e6ter A et al (2018) Inadequate iodine intake in population groups defined by age, life stage and vegetarian dietary practice in a Norwegian convenience sample. Nutrients 10(2):230. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu10020230","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"issue":"11","key":"3813_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3555","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12113555","volume":"12","author":"S Groufh-Jacobsen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Groufh-Jacobsen S et al (2020) Vegans, vegetarians and pescatarians are at risk of iodine deficiency in Norway. Nutrients 12(11):3555. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu12113555","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"issue":"4","key":"3813_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2009-0011","volume":"30","author":"MB Zimmermann","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zimmermann MB (2009) Iodine deficiency. Endocr Rev 30(4):376\u2013408. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1210\/er.2009-0011","journal-title":"Endocr Rev"},{"key":"3813_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-374135-6.00047-9","volume-title":"Comprehensive handbook of iodine: nutritional, biochemical, pathological and therapeutic aspects","author":"P Laurberg","year":"2009","unstructured":"Laurberg P, PI, Carl\u00e9 A, Andersen S, Knudsen N, Ovesen L, Rasmussen LB, (2009) The U-shaped curve of iodine intake and thyroid disorders. In: Preedy VR, Watson RR (eds) Comprehensive handbook of iodine: nutritional, biochemical, pathological and therapeutic aspects. Academic Press, USA, pp 449\u2013455"},{"issue":"6","key":"3813_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.1999.9.545","volume":"9","author":"F Delange","year":"1999","unstructured":"Delange F, de Beinost B, Alnwich D (1999) Risks of iodine-induced hyperthyroidism after correction of iodine deficiency by iodized salt. Thyroid 9(6):545\u2013556. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/thy.1999.9.545","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"issue":"10","key":"3813_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3830","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2006-1004","volume":"91","author":"I B\u00fclow Pedersen","year":"2006","unstructured":"B\u00fclow Pedersen I et al (2006) Increase in incidence of hyperthyroidism predominantly occurs in young people after iodine fortification of salt in Denmark. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91(10):3830\u20133834. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1210\/jc.2006-1004","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"issue":"3","key":"3813_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173722","volume":"12","author":"R Katagiri","year":"2017","unstructured":"Katagiri R et al (2017) Effect of excess iodine intake on thyroid diseases in different populations: a systematic review and meta-analyses including observational studies. PLoS ONE 12(3):e0173722. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0173722","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"3","key":"3813_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2013.251","volume":"10","author":"AM Leung","year":"2014","unstructured":"Leung AM, Braverman LE (2014) Consequences of excess iodine. Nat Rev Endocrinol 10(3):136\u2013142. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nrendo.2013.251","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"issue":"8","key":"3813_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3404","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.140.8.6895","volume":"140","author":"PH Eng","year":"1999","unstructured":"Eng PH et al (1999) Escape from the acute Wolff-Chaikoff effect is associated with a decrease in thyroid sodium\/iodide symporter messenger ribonucleic acid and protein. Endocrinology 140(8):3404\u20133410. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1210\/endo.140.8.6895","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"issue":"2","key":"3813_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)57335-X","volume":"174","author":"J Wolff","year":"1948","unstructured":"Wolff J, Chaikoff IL (1948) Plasma inorganic iodide as a homeostatic regulator of thyroid function. J Biol Chem 174(2):555\u2013564","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"issue":"1","key":"3813_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(69)90245-9","volume":"47","author":"J Wolff","year":"1969","unstructured":"Wolff J (1969) Iodide goiter and the pharmacologic effects of excess iodide. Am J Med 47(1):101\u2013124","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"3813_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-6196(25)07906-6","volume":"47","author":"SH Ingbar","year":"1972","unstructured":"Ingbar SH (1972) Autoregulation of the thyroid. Response to iodide excess and depletion. Mayo Clin Proc 47(11):814\u2013823","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc"},{"key":"3813_CR24","unstructured":"Blomhoff R, et al. (2023) Nordic Nutrition recommendations 2023: integrating environmental aspects. Nordic Council of Ministers."},{"key":"3813_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (2014) Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for iodine. EFSA J 12(5):3660. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2903\/j.efsa.2014.3660","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2014.3660"},{"key":"3813_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA, Dujardin B, Ferreira de Sousa R, Gomez Ruiz JA (2023) Scientific Report on the dietary exposure to heavy metals and iodine intake via consumption of seaweeds and halophytes in the European population. EFSA J 21(1).","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2023.7798"},{"issue":"2","key":"3813_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12918","volume":"21","author":"MJ Blikra","year":"2022","unstructured":"Blikra MJ, Henjum S, Aakre I (2022) Iodine from brown algae in human nutrition, with an emphasis on bioaccessibility, bioavailability, chemistry, and effects of processing: a systematic review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 21(2):1517\u20131536. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1541-4337.12918","journal-title":"Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf"},{"issue":"2","key":"3813_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.78.2.8106628","volume":"78","author":"N Konno","year":"1994","unstructured":"Konno N et al (1994) Association between dietary iodine intake and prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism in the coastal regions of Japan. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78(2):393\u2013397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1210\/jcem.78.2.8106628","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"issue":"6","key":"3813_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.K08E-073","volume":"55","author":"K Miyai","year":"2008","unstructured":"Miyai K, Tokushige T, Kondo M (2008) Suppression of thyroid function during ingestion of seaweed \u201cKombu\u201d (Laminaria japonoca) in normal Japanese adults. Endocr J 55(6):1103\u20131108. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1507\/endocrj.K08E-073","journal-title":"Endocr J"},{"issue":"1","key":"3813_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.14041","volume":"1446","author":"J Farebrother","year":"2019","unstructured":"Farebrother J, Zimmermann MB, Andersson M (2019) Excess iodine intake: sources, assessment, and effects on thyroid function. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1446(1):44\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/nyas.14041","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"3813_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.4158\/EP12280.GL","volume":"18","author":"JR Garber","year":"2012","unstructured":"Garber JR et al (2012) Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American association of clinical endocrinologists and the American thyroid association. Endocr Pract 18(6):988\u20131028. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4158\/EP12280.GL","journal-title":"Endocr Pract"},{"key":"3813_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12113555","author":"I Aakre","year":"2020","unstructured":"Aakre I et al (2020) Iodine status and thyroid function in a group of seaweed consumers in Norway. Nutrients. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/nu12113555","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"3813_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/jns.2023.90","volume":"12","author":"H Rosendahl-Riise","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rosendahl-Riise H et al (2023) Comparison of a digital iodine-specific dietary screener with 24-hour recall and urinary iodine concentration. J Nutr Sci 12:e90. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/jns.2023.90","journal-title":"J Nutr Sci"},{"key":"3813_CR34","unstructured":"Norwegian Directorate of Health (2021) Viktig \u00e5 f\u00e5 nok jod [Important to get sufficient iodine] [Internet]. Available from: https:\/\/www.helsenorge.no\/kosthold-og-ernaring\/sma-grep-for-et-sunt-kosthold\/derfor-trenger-vi-jod\/. Accessed 01 Aug 2024"},{"key":"3813_CR35","unstructured":"Meln\u00e6s BK, et al. (2012) Heftets tittel: Norkost 3 En landsomfattende kostholdsunders\u00f8kelse blant menn og kvinner i Norge i alderen 18\u201370 \u00e5r, 2010\u201311. Utgitt: 06\/2012 Bestillingsnummer: IS-2000."},{"key":"3813_CR36","unstructured":"Helsedirektoratet og Mattilsynet (2022) Kostholdsplanleggeren. Available from: www.kostholdsplanleggeren.no"},{"issue":"12","key":"3813_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1038\/ejcn.2015.122","volume":"69","author":"SA Johner","year":"2015","unstructured":"Johner SA et al (2015) Urinary 24-h creatinine excretion in adults and its use as a simple tool for the estimation of daily urinary analyte excretion from analyte\/creatinine ratios in populations. Eur J Clin Nutr 69(12):1336\u20131343. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/ejcn.2015.122","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"3813_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17226\/10026","volume-title":"Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc","author":"Institute of Medicine (US) Panel on Micronutrients","year":"2001","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine (US) Panel on Micronutrients (2001) Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. National Academies Press (US), Washington (DC). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226\/10026"},{"key":"3813_CR39","volume-title":"Knowledge update on macroalgae food and feed safety-based on data generated in the period 2014\u20132019 by the institute of marine research","author":"A Duinker","year":"2020","unstructured":"Duinker A et al (2020) Knowledge update on macroalgae food and feed safety-based on data generated in the period 2014\u20132019 by the institute of marine research. Rapport fra havforskningen, Norway"},{"key":"3813_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2021.112757","volume":"159","author":"AS Ficheux","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ficheux AS et al (2022) Seaweed consumption in France: key data for exposure and risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 159:112757. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fct.2021.112757","journal-title":"Food Chem Toxicol"},{"key":"3813_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-6614-4-14","volume":"4","author":"TT Zava","year":"2011","unstructured":"Zava TT, Zava DT (2011) Assessment of Japanese iodine intake based on seaweed consumption in Japan: a literature-based analysis. Thyroid Res 4:14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1756-6614-4-14","journal-title":"Thyroid Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"3813_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2017.0507","volume":"28","author":"MJ Kang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kang MJ, Hwang IT, Chung HR (2018) Excessive iodine intake and subclinical hypothyroidism in children and adolescents aged 6\u201319 years: results of the sixth Korean national health and nutrition examination survey, 2013\u20132015. Thyroid 28(6):773\u2013779. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/thy.2017.0507","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"issue":"10","key":"3813_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3187","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxab243","volume":"151","author":"S N\u00e6ss","year":"2021","unstructured":"N\u00e6ss S et al (2021) Iodine nutrition and iodine supplement initiation in association with thyroid function in mildly-to-moderately iodine-deficient pregnant and postpartum women. J Nutr 151(10):3187\u20133196. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jn\/nxab243","journal-title":"J Nutr"},{"issue":"11","key":"3813_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0111937","volume":"9","author":"Y Du","year":"2014","unstructured":"Du Y et al (2014) Iodine deficiency and excess coexist in China and induce thyroid dysfunction and disease: a cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE 9(11):e111937. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0111937","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"9","key":"3813_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1692","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980014002316","volume":"18","author":"L Tan","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tan L et al (2015) Prevalence of thyroid dysfunction with adequate and excessive iodine intake in Hebei province, People\u2019s Republic of China. Public Health Nutr 18(9):1692\u20131697. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1368980014002316","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr"},{"key":"3813_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2015.03.005","volume":"31","author":"I Aakre","year":"2015","unstructured":"Aakre I et al (2015) Development of thyroid dysfunction among women with excessive iodine intake\u2014a 3-year follow-up. J Trace Elem Med Biol 31:61\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtemb.2015.03.005","journal-title":"J Trace Elem Med Biol"},{"issue":"9","key":"3813_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2017.0672","volume":"28","author":"J Farebrother","year":"2018","unstructured":"Farebrother J et al (2018) Effect of excess iodine intake from iodized salt and\/or groundwater iodine on thyroid function in nonpregnant and pregnant women, infants, and children: a multicenter study in East Africa. Thyroid 28(9):1198\u20131210. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/thy.2017.0672","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"issue":"9","key":"3813_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2303","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.6704","volume":"34","author":"T Takase","year":"2020","unstructured":"Takase T et al (2020) Effects of Palmaria palmata on lipid metabolism and glycemic control in participants with hypercholesterolemia in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Phytother Res 34(9):2303\u20132312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ptr.6704","journal-title":"Phytother Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"3813_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2006.234","volume":"10","author":"J Teas","year":"2007","unstructured":"Teas J et al (2007) Seaweed and soy: companion foods in Asian cuisine and their effects on thyroid function in American women. J Med Food 10(1):90\u2013100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/jmf.2006.234","journal-title":"J Med Food"},{"issue":"2","key":"3813_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.111.023408","volume":"95","author":"Z Sang","year":"2012","unstructured":"Sang Z et al (2012) Exploration of the safe upper level of iodine intake in euthyroid Chinese adults: a randomized double-blind trial. Am J Clin Nutr 95(2):367\u2013373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3945\/ajcn.111.023408","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"3813_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13044-022-00137-1","volume":"15","author":"S Andersen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Andersen S et al (2022) Interpretation of TSH and T4 for diagnosing minor alterations in thyroid function: a comparative analysis of two separate longitudinal cohorts. Thyroid Res 15:19. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13044-022-00137-1","journal-title":"Thyroid Res"},{"issue":"9","key":"3813_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3562","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-1315","volume":"98","author":"PN Taylor","year":"2013","unstructured":"Taylor PN et al (2013) Clinical review: a review of the clinical consequences of variation in thyroid function within the reference range. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98(9):3562\u20133571. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1210\/jc.2013-1315","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"issue":"2","key":"3813_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1159\/000362597","volume":"3","author":"DJ Stott","year":"2014","unstructured":"Stott DJ et al (2014) The dilemma of treating subclinical hypothyroidism: risk that current guidelines do more harm than good. Eur Thyroid J 3(2):137\u2013138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000362597","journal-title":"Eur Thyroid J"},{"key":"3813_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina56010040","author":"J Calissendorff","year":"2020","unstructured":"Calissendorff J, Falhammar H (2020) To treat or not to treat subclinical hypothyroidism, what is the evidence? Medicina. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/medicina56010040","journal-title":"Medicina"},{"issue":"4","key":"3813_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1159\/000356507","volume":"2","author":"SHS Pearce","year":"2013","unstructured":"Pearce SHS et al (2013) 2013 ETA guideline: management of subclinical hypothyroidism. Eur Thyroid J 2(4):215\u2013228. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000356507","journal-title":"Eur Thyroid J"},{"key":"3813_CR56","unstructured":"Laboratorieklinikken HBH [The Laboratory Clinic] (2024) Analyseoversikten. Available from: https:\/\/analyseoversikten.no. Accessed 01 August 2024"}],"container-title":["European Journal of Nutrition"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00394-025-03813-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00394-025-03813-8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00394-025-03813-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T16:47:35Z","timestamp":1781628455000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00394-025-03813-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["3813"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00394-025-03813-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["1436-6207","1436-6215"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1436-6207","type":"print"},{"value":"1436-6215","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"26 February 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 September 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 January 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare none.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"27"}}