{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T19:14:08Z","timestamp":1788549248108,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Leibniz-Institut f\u00fcr Arbeitsforschung (IfADo)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with an elevated risk of substance use disorders (SUDs), yet most affected individuals do not develop addiction, indicating that vulnerability is selectively distributed rather than intrinsic to the disorder itself. This Review synthesizes current evidence on the neurodevelopmental mechanisms linking ADHD to SUD vulnerability, examines reward-related dysregulation as a unifying mechanistic framework underlying this association, and proposes a subgroup-based precision psychiatry perspective to explain the heterogeneity of addiction risk among individuals with ADHD. Integrating evidence across genetics, molecular neuroscience, neurodevelopment, systems-level circuitry, computational modeling, and environmental modulation, converging findings implicate polygenic variation affecting synaptic and dopaminergic pathways that interacts with atypical maturation of frontostriatal and frontocortical systems supporting reward valuation, inhibitory control, and salience processing. These multilayered perturbations may manifest computationally as dysregulated reinforcement learning, including altered dopamine signaling dynamics and impaired integration of delayed outcomes, biasing decision-making toward immediate reward. At the circuit level, disrupted coordination between mesolimbic reward systems and prefrontal control networks may facilitate a shift from goal-directed behavior to habit-based responding following repeated substance exposure, further shaped by experience-dependent neuroplasticity. Importantly, available evidence suggests that addiction risk is concentrated within distinct ADHD subgroups characterized by reduced responsiveness to anticipated rewards, impaired reinforcement learning, preference for immediate over delayed rewards, impaired inhibitory control, emotional dysregulation, and impulsive decision-making that emerge and evolve across development. Collectively, this synthesis supports a precision psychiatry framework integrating genetic, neuroimaging, computational, and digital phenotyping approaches to improve the identification, prediction, and prevention of SUD vulnerability in ADHD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-026-02370-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T06:27:31Z","timestamp":1788503251000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Neurodevelopmental reward dysregulation and addiction risk in ADHD"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4318-3375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raly James Perez","family":"Custodio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eugene C.","family":"Yi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bung-Nyun","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jae Hoon","family":"Cheong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"2370_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3096","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12093096","volume":"12","author":"M Barbuti","year":"2023","unstructured":"Barbuti M et al (2023) Challenges of treating ADHD with comorbid substance use disorder: considerations for the clinician. J Clin Med 12:3096 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm12093096","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"2370_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-017-1463-3","volume":"17","author":"MA Katzman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Katzman MA, Bilkey TS, Chokka PR, Fallu A, Klassen LJ (2017) Adult ADHD and comorbid disorders: clinical implications of a dimensional approach. BMC Psychiatry 17:302. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12888-017-1463-3","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2011.01.006","volume":"31","author":"SS Lee","year":"2011","unstructured":"Lee SS, Humphreys KL, Flory K, Liu R, Glass K (2011) Prospective association of childhood attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance use and abuse\/dependence: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev 31:328\u2013341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cpr.2011.01.006","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2370_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2011.01.021","volume":"50","author":"TE Wilens","year":"2011","unstructured":"Wilens TE et al (2011) Does ADHD predict substance-use disorders? A 10-year follow-up study of young adults with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 50:543\u2013553. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jaac.2011.01.021","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2011.12.007","volume":"122","author":"K van Emmerik","year":"2012","unstructured":"van Emmerik K et al (2012) Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in substance use disorder patients: a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 122:11\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2011.12.007","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"2370_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021275","volume":"20","author":"H Rohner","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rohner H, Gaspar N, Philipsen A, Schulze M (2023) Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among substance use disorder (SUD) populations: meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health 20:1275 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph20021275","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2370_CR7","unstructured":"Blanco CD, L\u00f3pez LG (2022) The relationship between ADHD and substance use disorder. https:\/\/tdah.som360.org\/en\/article\/relationship-between-adhd-and-substance-use-disorder"},{"key":"2370_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agm069","volume":"42","author":"MD Ohlmeier","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ohlmeier MD et al (2007) Nicotine and alcohol dependence in patients with comorbid attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Alcohol Alcohol 42:539\u2013543. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/alcalc\/agm069","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol"},{"key":"2370_CR9","unstructured":"Ocana AM, ADHD, and Comorbid Substance Use Disorder (2010). 27 https:\/\/www.psychiatrictimes.com\/view\/adhd-and-comorbid-substance-use-disorder"},{"key":"2370_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-025-07305-1","volume":"25","author":"CD Moldekleiv","year":"2025","unstructured":"Moldekleiv CD et al (2025) Prevalence of substance use disorder in individuals with attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: associations with sex and psychiatric comorbidity. BMC Psychiatry 25:936. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12888-025-07305-1","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21374","volume":"24","author":"S Cortese","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cortese S et al (2025) Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults: evidence base, uncertainties and controversies. World Psychiatry 24:347\u2013371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/wps.21374","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0277175","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0277175","volume":"17","author":"W-S Choi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Choi W-S, Woo YS, Wang S-M, Lim HK, Bahk W-M (2022) The prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities in adult ADHD compared with non-ADHD populations: a systematic literature review. PLoS One 17:e0277175. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0277175","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2370_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2025.102571","volume":"118","author":"U Njardvik","year":"2025","unstructured":"Njardvik U, Wergeland GJ, Riise EN, Hannesdottir DK, \u00d6st L-G (2025) Psychiatric comorbidity in children and adolescents with ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 118:102571. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cpr.2025.102571","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2370_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"K\u00f6ck P et al (2022) Co-occurring mental disorders in transitional aged youth with substance use disorders: a narrative review. Front Psychiatry 13, 827658. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.827658","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.827658"},{"key":"2370_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.3810\/pgm.2010.09.2206","volume":"122","author":"TE Wilens","year":"2010","unstructured":"Wilens TE, Spencer TJ (2010) Understanding attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder from childhood to adulthood. Postgrad Med 122:97\u2013109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3810\/pgm.2010.09.2206","journal-title":"Postgrad Med"},{"key":"2370_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14910","volume":"115","author":"T Wimberley","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wimberley T et al (2020) Genetic liability to ADHD and substance use disorders in individuals with ADHD. Addiction 115:1368\u20131377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/add.14910","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"2370_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2023.115393","volume":"327","author":"PL Morgan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Morgan PL, Hu EH (2023) Sociodemographic disparities in ADHD diagnosis and treatment among U.S. elementary schoolchildren. Psychiatry Res 327:115393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.psychres.2023.115393","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"2370_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0262988","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0262988","volume":"17","author":"WA Markham","year":"2022","unstructured":"Markham WA, Spencer N (2022) Factors that mediate the relationships between household socio-economic status and childhood Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents: A systematic review. PLoS One 17:e0262988. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0262988","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2370_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.1308","volume":"302","author":"ND Volkow","year":"2009","unstructured":"Volkow ND et al (2009) Evaluating dopamine reward pathway in ADHD: clinical implications. JAMA 302:1084\u20131091. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jama.2009.1308","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2370_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.2217\/npy.12.39","volume":"2","author":"TE Wilens","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wilens TE, Morrison NR (2012) Substance-use disorders in adolescents and adults with ADHD: focus on treatment. Neuropsychiatry 2:301 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2217\/npy.12.39","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2022.104575","volume":"135","author":"I Ivanov","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ivanov I, Bjork JM, Blair J, Newcorn JH (2022) Sensitization-based risk for substance abuse in vulnerable individuals with ADHD: review and re-examination of evidence. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 135:104575. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2022.104575","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2370_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.07.010","volume":"128","author":"M Luderer","year":"2021","unstructured":"Luderer M, Ramos Quiroga JA, Faraone SV, Zhang-James Y, Reif A (2021) Alcohol use disorders and ADHD. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 128:648\u2013660. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.07.010","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2370_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-017-0769-7","volume":"19","author":"SX Luo","year":"2017","unstructured":"Luo SX, Levin FR (2017) Towards precision addiction treatment: new findings in co-morbid substance use and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep 19:14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11920-017-0769-7","journal-title":"Curr Psychiatry Rep"},{"key":"2370_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Srichawla BS, Telles CC, Schweitzer M, Darwish B, Darwish BA (2022) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance use disorder: a narrative review. Cureus 14(4). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.24068","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.24068"},{"key":"2370_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2016.10.018","volume":"85","author":"AM Yule","year":"2017","unstructured":"Yule AM et al (2017) Examining the association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance use disorders: a familial risk analysis. J Psychiatr Res 85:49\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2016.10.018","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"2370_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2026.112799","volume":"107","author":"LI Horstman","year":"2026","unstructured":"Horstman LI et al (2026) Polygenic risk scores reveal genetic underpinnings of comorbidity between substance use disorders and ADHD. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 107:112799. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2026.112799","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"key":"2370_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2023.105313","volume":"153","author":"M Ribas\u00e9s","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ribas\u00e9s M et al (2023) Genetic architecture of ADHD and overlap with other psychiatric disorders and cognition-related phenotypes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 153:105313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2023.105313","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2370_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2024.115758","volume":"333","author":"D Koller","year":"2024","unstructured":"Koller D et al (2024) Genetic contribution to the comorbidity between attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and substance use disorders. Psychiatry Res 333:115758. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.psychres.2024.115758","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"2370_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12849","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12849","volume":"26","author":"JL Treur","year":"2021","unstructured":"Treur JL et al (2021) Investigating causality between liability to ADHD and substance use, and liability to substance use and ADHD risk, using Mendelian randomization. Addict Biol 26:e12849. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/adb.12849","journal-title":"Addict Biol"},{"key":"2370_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12230","volume":"21","author":"AP Groenman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Groenman AP et al (2016) Dopamine and serotonin genetic risk scores predicting substance and nicotine use in attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder. Addict Biol 21:915\u2013923. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/adb.12230","journal-title":"Addict Biol"},{"key":"2370_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1038\/s44220-024-00277-3","volume":"2","author":"TT Nielsen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nielsen TT et al (2024) Shared genetics of ADHD, cannabis use disorder and cannabis use and prediction of cannabis use disorder in ADHD. Nat Mental Health 2:1071\u20131083. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s44220-024-00277-3","journal-title":"Nat Mental Health"},{"key":"2370_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2009.03.010","volume":"93","author":"J McGeary","year":"2009","unstructured":"McGeary J (2009) The DRD4 exon 3 VNTR polymorphism and addiction-related phenotypes: a review. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 93:222\u2013229. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pbb.2009.03.010","journal-title":"Pharmacol Biochem Behav"},{"key":"2370_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ferr\u00e9 S et al (2022) Functional and pharmacological role of the dopamine D4 receptor and its polymorphic variants. Front Endocrinol 13, 1014678  https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fendo.2022.1014678","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1014678"},{"key":"2370_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035338","volume":"22","author":"SS Lee","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lee SS, Humphreys KL (2014) Interactive association of dopamine receptor (DRD4) genotype and ADHD on alcohol expectancies in children. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 22:100\u2013109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0035338","journal-title":"Exp Clin Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"2370_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.2147\/pgpm.s6800","volume":"2010:3","author":"D Turic","year":"2010","unstructured":"Turic D, Swanson J, Sonuga-Barke E (2010) DRD4 and DAT1 in ADHD: Functional neurobiology to pharmacogenetics. Pharmacogenom Personal Med 2010:3:61\u201378 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/pgpm.s6800","journal-title":"Pharmacogenom Personal Med"},{"key":"2370_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01341-5","volume":"27","author":"MEA Reith","year":"2022","unstructured":"Reith MEA et al (2022) The dopamine transporter gene SLC6A3: multidisease risks. Mol Psychiatry 27:1031\u20131046. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41380-021-01341-5","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001092","volume":"7","author":"K Brophy","year":"2002","unstructured":"Brophy K, Hawi Z, Kirley A, Fitzgerald M, Gill M (2002) Synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): evidence of linkage and association in the Irish population. Mol Psychiatry 7:913\u2013917. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/sj.mp.4001092","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li J, Yan W-J, Wu Y, Tian X-X, Zhang Y-W (2022) Synaptosomal-associated protein 25 gene polymorphisms affect treatment efficiency of methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: an fNIRS Study. Front Behav Neurosci 15:2021 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2021.793643","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2021.793643"},{"key":"2370_CR39","first-page":"2443","volume":"20","author":"GA \u00dcnal","year":"2016","unstructured":"\u00dcnal GA, \u0130nci Kenar AN, Tepeli E, K\u0131ro\u011flu Y, Herken H (2016) Relationship between the SNAP-25 gene and the effects of methylphenidate on the anterior cingulate cortex of patients with adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 20:2443\u20132449","journal-title":"Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0396-7","volume":"9","author":"M Arcos-Burgos","year":"2019","unstructured":"Arcos-Burgos M et al (2019) ADGRL3 (LPHN3) variants predict substance use disorder. Transl Psychiatry 9:42. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-019-0396-7","journal-title":"Transl Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-022-01388-7","volume":"273","author":"GP Meyer","year":"2023","unstructured":"Meyer GP et al (2023) Dissecting the cross-trait effects of the FOXP2 GWAS hit on clinical and brain phenotypes in adults with ADHD. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin NeuroSci 273:15\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00406-022-01388-7","journal-title":"Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin NeuroSci"},{"key":"2370_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.b.32827","volume":"186","author":"L Vilar-Rib\u00f3","year":"2021","unstructured":"Vilar-Rib\u00f3 L et al (2021) Genetic overlap and causality between substance use disorder and attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Genet Part B Neuropsychiatr Genet 186:140\u2013150. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajmg.b.32827","journal-title":"Am J Med Genet Part B Neuropsychiatr Genet"},{"key":"2370_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"V\u00e9ronneau-Veilleux F, Robaey P, Ursino M, Nekka F (2022) A mechanistic model of ADHD as resulting from dopamine phasic\/tonic imbalance during reinforcement learning. Front Comput Neurosci 16, 849323  https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fncom.2022.849323","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2022.849323"},{"key":"2370_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2021.11.007","volume":"45","author":"SM Groman","year":"2022","unstructured":"Groman SM, Thompson SL, Lee D, Taylor JR (2022) Reinforcement learning detuned in addiction: integrative and translational approaches. Trends Neurosci 45:96\u2013105. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tins.2021.11.007","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"2370_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.012","volume":"49","author":"R Stark","year":"2011","unstructured":"Stark R et al (2011) ADHD related behaviors are associated with brain activation in the reward system. Neuropsychologia 49:426\u2013434. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.012","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"2370_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2017.09.043","volume":"337","author":"GL Davis","year":"2018","unstructured":"Davis GL et al (2018) Functional coding variation in the presynaptic dopamine transporter associated with neuropsychiatric disorders drives enhanced motivation and context-dependent impulsivity in mice. Behav Brain Res 337:61\u201369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bbr.2017.09.043","journal-title":"Behav Brain Res"},{"key":"2370_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4059","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11244059","volume":"11","author":"A Stewart","year":"2022","unstructured":"Stewart A et al (2022) Male DAT Val559 mice exhibit compulsive behavior under devalued reward conditions accompanied by cellular and pharmacological changes. Cells 11:4059","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"2370_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MacDonald HJ, Kleppe R, Szigetvari PD, Haavik J (2024) The dopamine hypothesis for ADHD: an evaluation of evidence accumulated from human studies and animal models. Front Psychiatry 15, 1492126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1492126","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1492126"},{"key":"2370_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3137","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2008.0093","volume":"363","author":"TE Robinson","year":"2008","unstructured":"Robinson TE, Berridge KC (2008) The incentive sensitization theory of addiction: some current issues. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 363:3137\u20133146. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2008.0093","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2025.05.026","volume":"99","author":"W Zheng","year":"2026","unstructured":"Zheng W et al (2026) Effect of natural rewards on substance use disorder: an incentive sensitization perspective. Biol Psychiatry 99:436\u2013445. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biopsych.2025.05.026","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-006-0502-4","volume":"191","author":"Y Niv","year":"2007","unstructured":"Niv Y, Daw ND, Joel D, Dayan P (2007) Tonic dopamine: opportunity costs and the control of response vigor. Psychopharmacology 191:507\u2013520. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00213-006-0502-4","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"2370_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14273","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1894-10.2010","volume":"30","author":"JK Dreyer","year":"2010","unstructured":"Dreyer JK, Herrik KF, Berg RW, Hounsgaard JD (2010) Influence of phasic and tonic dopamine release on receptor activation. J Neurosci 30:14273. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1894-10.2010","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"2370_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2014.02.002","volume":"52","author":"SH Kollins","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kollins SH, Adcock RA (2014) ADHD, altered dopamine neurotransmission, and disrupted reinforcement processes: Implications for smoking and nicotine dependence. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 52:70\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2014.02.002","journal-title":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2020.08.007","volume":"38","author":"MCM Gueguen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gueguen MCM, Schweitzer EM, Konova AB (2021) Computational theory-driven studies of reinforcement learning and decision-making in addiction: what have we learned? Curr Opin Behav Sci 38:40\u201348. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cobeha.2020.08.007","journal-title":"Curr Opin Behav Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/1866-1955-4-19","volume":"4","author":"GS Dichter","year":"2012","unstructured":"Dichter GS, Damiano CA, Allen JA (2012) Reward circuitry dysfunction in psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders and genetic syndromes: animal models and clinical findings. J Neurodev Disord 4:19. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1866-1955-4-19","journal-title":"J Neurodev Disord"},{"key":"2370_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.b.20075","volume":"124B","author":"V De Luca","year":"2004","unstructured":"De Luca V, Muglia P, Jain U, Kennedy JL (2004) No evidence of linkage or association between the norepinephrine transporter (NET) gene MnlI polymorphism and adult ADHD. Am J Med Genet Part B Neuropsychiatr Genet 124B:38\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajmg.b.20075","journal-title":"Am J Med Genet Part B Neuropsychiatr Genet"},{"key":"2370_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1503\/jpn.110073","volume":"37","author":"SM Sengupta","year":"2012","unstructured":"Sengupta SM et al (2012) Differential association between the norepinephrine transporter gene and ADHD: role of sex and subtype. J Psychiatry Neurosci 37:129\u2013137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1503\/jpn.110073","journal-title":"J Psychiatry Neurosci"},{"key":"2370_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23071","volume":"37","author":"HL Sigurdardottir","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sigurdardottir HL et al (2016) Effects of norepinephrine transporter gene variants on NET binding in ADHD and healthy controls investigated by PET. Hum Brain Mapp 37:884\u2013895. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/hbm.23071","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp"},{"key":"2370_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2014.1226","volume":"71","author":"T Vanicek","year":"2014","unstructured":"Vanicek T et al (2014) The norepinephrine transporter in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder investigated with positron emission tomography. JAMA Psychiatry 71:1340\u20131349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2014.1226","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2017.09.040","volume":"364","author":"CF Aparicio","year":"2019","unstructured":"Aparicio CF, Hennigan PJ, Mulligan LJ, Alonso-Alvarez B (2019) Spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats choose more impulsively than Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats on a delay discounting task. Behav Brain Res 364:480\u2013493. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bbr.2017.09.040","journal-title":"Behav Brain Res"},{"key":"2370_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2018.11.028","volume":"359","author":"A Adinolfi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Adinolfi A et al (2019) Behavioral characterization of DAT-KO rats and evidence of asocial-like phenotypes in DAT-HET rats: the potential involvement of norepinephrine system. Behav Brain Res 359:516\u2013527. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bbr.2018.11.028","journal-title":"Behav Brain Res"},{"key":"2370_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3109\/01677063.2016.1144751","volume":"30","author":"EV Efimova","year":"2016","unstructured":"Efimova EV, Gainetdinov RR, Budygin EA, Sotnikova TD (2016) Dopamine transporter mutant animals: a translational perspective. J Neurogenet 30:5\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/01677063.2016.1144751","journal-title":"J Neurogenet"},{"key":"2370_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhuang X et al (2001) Hyperactivity and impaired response habituation in hyperdopaminergic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci 98:1982\u20131987 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.98.4.1982","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.98.4.1982"},{"key":"2370_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E4779","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1417294111","volume":"111","author":"MA Mergy","year":"2014","unstructured":"Mergy MA et al (2014) The rare DAT coding variant Val559 perturbs DA neuron function, changes behavior, and alters in vivo responses to psychostimulants. Proc Natl Acad Sci 111:E4779\u2013E4788. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1417294111","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1111\/bcpt.13964","volume":"134","author":"FP Mayer","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mayer FP, Stewart A, Blakely RD (2024) Leaky lessons learned: efflux prone dopamine transporter variant reveals sex and circuit specific contributions of D2 receptor signalling to neuropsychiatric disease. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 134:206\u2013218. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bcpt.13964","journal-title":"Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol"},{"key":"2370_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2011.04.012","volume":"59","author":"J Solich","year":"2011","unstructured":"Solich J et al (2011) Norepinephrine transporter (NET) knock-out upregulates dopamine and serotonin transporters in the mouse brain. Neurochem Int 59:185\u2013191. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuint.2011.04.012","journal-title":"Neurochem Int"},{"key":"2370_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1159\/000324065","volume":"30","author":"EL Gardner","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gardner EL (2011) Introduction: addiction and brain reward and anti-reward pathways. Adv Psychosom Med 30:22\u201360 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000324065","journal-title":"Adv Psychosom Med"},{"key":"2370_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-021-01132-0","volume":"47","author":"NP Friedman","year":"2022","unstructured":"Friedman NP, Robbins TW (2022) The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function. Neuropsychopharmacology 47:72\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41386-021-01132-0","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2370_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15037","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010654108","volume":"108","author":"ND Volkow","year":"2011","unstructured":"Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Fowler JS, Tomasi D, Telang F (2011) Addiction: beyond dopamine reward circuitry. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108:15037\u201315042. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1010654108","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2017.06.012","volume":"179","author":"AC Janes","year":"2017","unstructured":"Janes AC et al (2017) Revisiting the role of the insula and smoking cue-reactivity in relapse: a replication and extension of neuroimaging findings. Drug Alcohol Depend 179:8\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2017.06.012","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"2370_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li X, Kass G, Wiers CE, Shi Z (2024) The brain salience network at the intersection of pain and substance use disorders: insights from functional neuroimaging research. Curr Addict Rep 11, 797\u2013808. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40429-024-00593-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-024-00593-9"},{"key":"2370_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.01.117","volume":"62","author":"MT Sutherland","year":"2012","unstructured":"Sutherland MT, McHugh MJ, Pariyadath V, Stein EA (2012) Resting state functional connectivity in addiction: lessons learned and a road ahead. NeuroImage 62:2281\u20132295. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.01.117","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2370_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2011.11.007","volume":"16","author":"FX Castellanos","year":"2012","unstructured":"Castellanos FX, Proal E (2012) Large-scale brain systems in ADHD: beyond the prefrontal\u2013striatal model. Trends Cogn Sci 16:17\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2011.11.007","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.06.036","volume":"200","author":"R Zhang","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zhang R, Volkow ND (2019) Brain default-mode network dysfunction in addiction. NeuroImage 200:313\u2013331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.06.036","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2370_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2017.01.021","volume":"70","author":"L Wang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wang L et al (2017) Altered default mode, fronto-parietal and salience networks in adolescents with Internet addiction. Addict Behav 70:1\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.addbeh.2017.01.021","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"key":"2370_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Suk J-W, Hwang S, Cheong C (2021) Functional and structural alteration of default mode, executive control, and salience networks in alcohol use disorder. Front Psychiatry 12, 742228. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.742228","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.742228"},{"key":"2370_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Madsen H, Brown R, Lawrence A (2012) Neuroplasticity in addiction: cellular and transcriptional perspectives. Front Mol Neurosci 5, 99. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnmol.2012.00099","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2012.00099"},{"key":"2370_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1605","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-021-05778-y","volume":"43","author":"M Kourosh-Arami","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kourosh-Arami M, Komaki A, Gholami M (2022) Addiction-induced plasticity in underlying neural circuits. Neurol Sci 43:1605\u20131615. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10072-021-05778-y","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Estrada-Medina R, Briones-Llamoctanta BE, Turpo-Chaparro JE (2026) Neuroplasticity and recovery of the brain affected by substance use disorder: multilevel mechanisms and new therapeutic strategies (2020\u20132025). Front Mol Neurosci 19, 1760387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnmol.2026.1760387","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2026.1760387"},{"key":"2370_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4271","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26094271","volume":"26","author":"C Toader","year":"2025","unstructured":"Toader C et al (2025) From Synaptic Plasticity to Neurodegeneration: BDNF as a Transformative Target in Medicine. Int J Mol Sci 26:4271 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26094271","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.110","volume":"35","author":"GF Koob","year":"2010","unstructured":"Koob GF, Volkow ND (2010) Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 35:217\u2013238. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/npp.2009.110","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2370_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2018.08.001","volume":"28","author":"B Franke","year":"2018","unstructured":"Franke B et al (2018) Live fast, die young? A review on the developmental trajectories of ADHD across the lifespan. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 28:1059\u20131088. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2018.08.001","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"key":"2370_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107947","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.107947","volume":"212","author":"IJ Elkins","year":"2020","unstructured":"Elkins IJ et al (2020) Differential implications of persistent, remitted, and late-onset ADHD symptoms for substance abuse in women and men: a twin study from ages 11 to 24. Drug Alcohol Depend 212:107947. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.107947","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"2370_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Buitelaar J et al (2022) Toward precision medicine in ADHD. Front Behav Neurosci 16 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2022.900981","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2022.900981"},{"key":"2370_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106311","volume":"176","author":"CGJ Guerrin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Guerrin CGJ, Tesselaar DRM, Booij J, Schellekens AFA, Homberg JR (2025) Precision medicine in substance use disorders: integrating behavioral, environmental, and biological insights. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 176:106311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2025.106311","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2370_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.2147\/PGPM.S146110","volume":"11","author":"A Menke","year":"2018","unstructured":"Menke A (2018) Precision pharmacotherapy: psychiatry\u2019s future direction in preventing, diagnosing, and treating mental disorders. Pharmacogenomics Personal Med 11:211\u2013222 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/PGPM.S146110","journal-title":"Pharmacogenomics Personal Med"},{"key":"2370_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbaa120","volume":"47","author":"G de Salazar","year":"2021","unstructured":"de Salazar G et al (2021) Implementing precision psychiatry: a systematic review of individualized prediction models for clinical practice. Schizophr Bull 47:284\u2013297. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/schbul\/sbaa120","journal-title":"Schizophr Bull"},{"key":"2370_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2023.01.001","volume":"69","author":"A Sathyanarayanan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sathyanarayanan A et al (2023) Multi-omics data integration methods and their applications in psychiatric disorders. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 69:26\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2023.01.001","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"key":"2370_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bzdok D, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2018) Machine learning for precision psychiatry: opportunites and challenges. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging, 3(3), 223-230. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bpsc.2017.11.007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpsc.2017.11.007"},{"key":"2370_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2026.112762","volume":"105","author":"MJH Kas","year":"2026","unstructured":"Kas MJH et al (2026) Biomarker innovations in precision psychiatry diagnostics and treatment strategies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 105:112762. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2026.112762","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol"},{"key":"2370_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26031082","volume":"26","author":"D Dhieb","year":"2025","unstructured":"Dhieb D, Bastaki K (2025) Pharmaco-Multiomics: a new frontier in precision psychiatry. Int J Mol Sci 26:1082 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26031082","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2014.04.003","volume":"39","author":"D De Alwis","year":"2014","unstructured":"De Alwis D, Lynskey MT, Reiersen AM, Agrawal A (2014) Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder subtypes and substance use and use disorders in NESARC. Addict Behav 39:1278\u20131285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.addbeh.2014.04.003","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"key":"2370_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1438","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054716629217","volume":"23","author":"S Kaye","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kaye S et al (2019) Persistence and subtype stability of ADHD among substance use disorder treatment seekers. J Atten Disord 23:1438\u20131453. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1087054716629217","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"key":"2370_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11020","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262211020","volume":"26","author":"E Bogda\u0144ska-Chomczyk","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bogda\u0144ska-Chomczyk E, Majewski MK, Koz\u0142owska A (2025) ADHD in adulthood: clinical presentation, comorbidities, and treatment perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 26:11020 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262211020","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5639","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-42018-y","volume":"9","author":"O Hirsch","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hirsch O, Chavanon ML, Christiansen H (2019) Emotional dysregulation subgroups in patients with adult attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a cluster analytic approach. Sci Rep 9:5639. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-019-42018-y","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2370_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MacKillop J (2013) Integrating behavioral economics, and behavioral genetics: delayed reward discounting as an endophenotype for addictive disorders. J Exp Anal Behav 99:14\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jeab.4","DOI":"10.1002\/jeab.4"},{"key":"2370_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.01.020","volume":"69","author":"JW Dalley","year":"2011","unstructured":"Dalley JW, Everitt, Barry J, Robbins TW (2011) Impulsivity, compulsivity, and top-down cognitive control. Neuron 69:680\u2013694. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.01.020","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2370_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina61071211","volume":"61","author":"IA Hurjui","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hurjui IA et al (2025) Biomarkers and neuropsychological tools in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: from subjectivity to precision diagnosis. Medicina 61:1211 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/medicina61071211","journal-title":"Medicina"},{"key":"2370_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2025.111417","volume":"140","author":"X Li","year":"2025","unstructured":"Li X et al (2025) Identifying neuroimaging biomarkers of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) from cortical hemodynamic responses during Go\/NoGo task using machine learning approaches. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 140:111417. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2025.111417","journal-title":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-026-02631-6","volume":"11","author":"Y Liu","year":"2026","unstructured":"Liu Y, Zhu K, Peng W, Liu Z, Mao X (2026) Multi-omics and artificial intelligence for precision drug discovery and potential clinical applications. Signal Transduct Target Ther 11:210. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41392-026-02631-6","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther"},{"key":"2370_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.3390\/genes16121447","volume":"16","author":"A Borrego-Ruiz","year":"2025","unstructured":"Borrego-Ruiz A, Borrego JJ (2025) Addiction susceptibility: genetic factors, personality traits, and epigenetic interactions with the gut microbiome. Genes 16:1447 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/genes16121447","journal-title":"Genes"},{"key":"2370_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sethi S, Brietzke E (2016) Omics-based, biomarkers: application of metabolomics in neuropsychiatric disorders. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 19:pyv096. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ijnp\/pyv096","DOI":"10.1093\/ijnp\/pyv096"},{"key":"2370_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1007\/s40291-022-00609-y","volume":"26","author":"CAM Cecil","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cecil CAM, Nigg JT (2022) Epigenetics: reflections on current knowledge, research priorities and translational potential. Mol Diagn Ther 26:581\u2013606. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40291-022-00609-y","journal-title":"Mol Diagn Ther"},{"key":"2370_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-026-03972-0","volume":"16","author":"W Cai","year":"2026","unstructured":"Cai W, Mizuno Y (2026) Dynamic modeling in neurocognitive frameworks of childhood ADHD: a review of inhibitory control and reward systems. Transl Psychiatry 16:198. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-026-03972-0","journal-title":"Transl Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-025-07586-6","volume":"25","author":"AA Fateh","year":"2025","unstructured":"Fateh AA et al (2025) Frequency-specific alterations in low-frequency functional connectivity in children with ADHD. BMC Psychiatry 25:1183. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12888-025-07586-6","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-02207-2","volume":"12","author":"G Michelini","year":"2022","unstructured":"Michelini G, Norman LJ, Shaw P, Loo SK (2022) Treatment biomarkers for ADHD: taking stock and moving forward. Transl Psychiatry 12:444. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-022-02207-2","journal-title":"Transl Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patter.2022.100602","volume":"3","author":"ZS Chen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chen ZS et al (2022) Modern views of machine learning for precision psychiatry. Patterns 3:100602. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.patter.2022.100602","journal-title":"Patterns"},{"key":"2370_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2020.102291","volume":"27","author":"S-L Lam","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lam S-L et al (2020) Neurofunctional and behavioural measures associated with fMRI-neurofeedback learning in adolescents with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder. NeuroImage Clin 27:102291. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.nicl.2020.102291","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin"},{"key":"2370_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Manchia M, Pisanu C, Squassina A, Carpiniello B (2020) Challenges and future prospects of precision medicine in psychiatry. Pharmacogenomics Personal Med 13:127\u2013140 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/PGPM.S198225","DOI":"10.2147\/PGPM.S198225"},{"key":"2370_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21030969","volume":"21","author":"E Lin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lin E, Lin C-H, Lane H-Y (2020) Precision psychiatry applications with pharmacogenomics: artificial intelligence and machine learning approaches. Int J Mol Sci 21:969 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms21030969","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"2370_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20882","volume":"20","author":"AM Chekroud","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chekroud AM et al (2021) The promise of machine learning in predicting treatment outcomes in psychiatry. World Psychiatry 20:154\u2013170. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/wps.20882","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm16040182","volume":"16","author":"K Alagiakrishnan","year":"2026","unstructured":"Alagiakrishnan K, Halverson T, Olivares DV, Sadowski CA (2026) New personalized medicine model for medication management. J Personal Med 16:182 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm16040182","journal-title":"J Personal Med"},{"key":"2370_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Furuie H et al (2026) Animal models for the study of ADHD: the need for next-generation models. Front Psychiatry 17, 1773090. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1773090","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1773090"},{"key":"2370_CR114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14171367","volume":"14","author":"MW Yacoub","year":"2025","unstructured":"Yacoub MW et al (2025) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a comprehensive overview of the mechanistic insights from human studies to animal models. Cells 14:1367 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells14171367","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"2370_CR115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-026-08157-z","volume":"26","author":"S-S Fang","year":"2026","unstructured":"Fang S-S, Chen S-H (2026) Digital phenotyping for predicting relapse in psychiatric disorders: a systematic review of passive sensing approaches. BMC Psychiatry 26:507. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12888-026-08157-z","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105541","volume":"158","author":"IE Leaning","year":"2024","unstructured":"Leaning IE et al (2024) From smartphone data to clinically relevant predictions: A systematic review of digital phenotyping methods in depression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 158:105541. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105541","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2370_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e77066","DOI":"10.2196\/77066","volume":"27","author":"S Shen","year":"2025","unstructured":"Shen S et al (2025) Passive sensing for mental health monitoring using machine learning with wearables and smartphones: scoping review. J Med Internet Res 27:e77066. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/77066","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res"},{"key":"2370_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-023-02536-w","volume":"13","author":"M Cao","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cao M, Martin E, Li X (2023) Machine learning in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: new approaches toward understanding the neural mechanisms. Transl Psychiatry 13:236. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-023-02536-w","journal-title":"Transl Psychiatry"},{"key":"2370_CR119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10012","DOI":"10.70322\/ldmh.2026.10012","volume":"2","author":"EN Lockhart","year":"2026","unstructured":"Lockhart EN, Brzek BC (2026) Machine learning approaches to identify and classify ADHD: a narrative review with tabular performance synthesis and human\u2013AI mapping. Lifesp Dev Mental Health 2:10012 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.70322\/ldmh.2026.10012","journal-title":"Lifesp Dev Mental Health"},{"key":"2370_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s43054-026-00530-7","volume":"74","author":"B Fallahpour","year":"2026","unstructured":"Fallahpour B et al (2026) Artificial intelligence in ADHD diagnosis: a comprehensive review of machine learning applications, clinical validation challenges, and implementation barriers in precision medicine. Egypt Pediatr Assoc Gaz 74:36. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s43054-026-00530-7","journal-title":"Egypt Pediatr Assoc Gaz"},{"key":"2370_CR121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpsc.2019.11.007","volume":"5","author":"AN Nielsen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nielsen AN, Barch DM, Petersen SE, Schlaggar BL, Greene DJ (2020) Machine learning with neuroimaging: evaluating its applications in psychiatry. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 5:791\u2013798. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bpsc.2019.11.007","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging"}],"container-title":["European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00406-026-02370-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00406-026-02370-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00406-026-02370-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T19:02:15Z","timestamp":1788548535000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00406-026-02370-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"references-count":121,"alternative-id":["2370"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00406-026-02370-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["0940-1334","1433-8491"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0940-1334","type":"print"},{"value":"1433-8491","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 June 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 August 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 September 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}]}}