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The study participants were mostly younger than 21 years of age at the time of their first exposure and lived in settlements near the SNTS. Individual thyroid doses from external irradiation from gamma-emitting radionuclides deposited on the ground as well as internal irradiation from intake of\n                    <jats:sup>131<\/jats:sup>\n                    I and short-lived radiotellurium and radioiodine isotopes (\n                    <jats:sup>132<\/jats:sup>\n                    Te+\n                    <jats:sup>132<\/jats:sup>\n                    I,\n                    <jats:sup>133<\/jats:sup>\n                    I, and\n                    <jats:sup>135<\/jats:sup>\n                    I) with locally produced foodstuffs and inhalation of contaminated air during the passage of the radioactive cloud were reconstructed for the cohort. Estimated thyroid doses from external irradiation ranged from 4.9\u2009\u00d7\u200910\n                    <jats:sup>\u22125<\/jats:sup>\n                    Gy to 0.58\u00a0Gy (arithmetic mean (AM) dose was 0.048\u00a0Gy, median dose was 0.023\u00a0Gy), internal thyroid doses from ingestion of\n                    <jats:sup>131<\/jats:sup>\n                    I,\n                    <jats:sup>132<\/jats:sup>\n                    Te+\n                    <jats:sup>132<\/jats:sup>\n                    I,\n                    <jats:sup>133<\/jats:sup>\n                    I and\n                    <jats:sup>135<\/jats:sup>\n                    I ranged from 0 to 13.3\u00a0Gy (AM: 0.34\u00a0Gy, median: 0.062\u00a0Gy), and internal thyroid doses from inhalation of\n                    <jats:sup>131<\/jats:sup>\n                    I,\n                    <jats:sup>132<\/jats:sup>\n                    Te+\n                    <jats:sup>132<\/jats:sup>\n                    I,\n                    <jats:sup>133<\/jats:sup>\n                    I and\n                    <jats:sup>135<\/jats:sup>\n                    I ranged from 0 to 0.28\u00a0Gy (AM: 0.046\u00a0Gy, median: 2.8\u2009\u00d7\u200910\n                    <jats:sup>\u22123<\/jats:sup>\n                    \u00a0Gy). The AM of thyroid doses from all exposure pathways was 0.43\u00a0Gy (range from 3.5\u2009\u00d7\u200910\n                    <jats:sup>\u22124<\/jats:sup>\n                    \u00a0Gy to 13.7\u00a0Gy) and the median was 0.13\u00a0Gy. The highest thyroid doses were received by cohort members after test #2 conducted on 24 September 1951 (AM: 1.1\u00a0Gy, geometric mean (GM): 0.70\u00a0Gy), followed by test #1 conducted on 29 August 1949 (AM: 0.49\u00a0Gy, GM: 0.047\u00a0Gy) and the thermonuclear test #4 conducted on 12 August 1953 (AM: 0.16\u00a0Gy, GM: 0.14\u00a0Gy). The predominant pathway of thyroid exposure in the cohort was intake of\n                    <jats:sup>131<\/jats:sup>\n                    I with fresh milk from mares and cows, and dairy products made from these types of milk. Although the uncertainties in the dose estimates were not quantified, it was estimated that they are characterized by a geometric standard deviation from 2.0 to 4.0 for most individuals. The study cohort received quite high thyroid doses compared to other populations exposed to fallout from the Chernobyl accident and atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted elsewhere. The cohort included individuals exposed\n                    <jats:italic>in utero<\/jats:italic>\n                    , as children and as adolescents to high doses of radiation to the thyroid gland. Consequently, it provides a unique opportunity to assess radiation-related risks of thyroid cancer, thyroid nodules, and other structural and functional non-cancer thyroid diseases.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00411-025-01155-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T12:25:36Z","timestamp":1763382336000},"page":"283-305","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Thyroid doses estimated for a cohort of people exposed to fallout from atmospheric nuclear weapons testing at the semipalatinsk nuclear test site, Kazakhstan"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"65","author":[{"given":"Vladimir","family":"Drozdovitch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra","family":"Lipikhina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kazbek","family":"Apsalikov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yulia","family":"Brait","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alik","family":"Tokanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gani","family":"Yessilkanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rafail","family":"Rosenson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Bouville","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Evgenia","family":"Ostroumova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"1155_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1097\/HP.0000000000001503","volume":"122","author":"LR Anspaugh","year":"2022","unstructured":"Anspaugh LR, Bouville A, Thiessen KM, Hoffman FO, Beck HL, Gordeev KI, Simon SL (2022) A methodology for calculation of internal dose following exposure to radioactive fallout from the detonation of a nuclear fission device. 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