{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T12:30:56Z","timestamp":1788957056770,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772841600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Social Science University of Ankara"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int J Legal Med"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-026-03729-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T02:32:24Z","timestamp":1772850744000},"page":"2207-2224","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A two-stage deep learning approach for forensic age and sex determination from hand-wrist radiographs: an anatomical pose estimation and multi-task model"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"140","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1721-5182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cumali","family":"\u00c7atak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6832-6208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mert","family":"Ocak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1544-7062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Do\u011fan","family":"\u00c7olak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"3729_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2009.09.008","volume":"193","author":"E Cunha","year":"2009","unstructured":"Cunha E, Baccino E, Martrille L, Ramsthaler F, Prieto J, Schuliar Y, Cattaneo C (2009) The problem of aging human remains and living individuals: a review. Forensic Sci Int 193(1\u20133):1\u201313","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"3729_CR2","unstructured":"INTERPOL DU (2018) Disaster victim identification guide. Interpol DVI Guide Review"},{"key":"3729_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Black SM, Hackman L (2010) Disaster victim identification. Dundee University","DOI":"10.1201\/b10926"},{"issue":"4","key":"3729_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2008.00742.x","volume":"53","author":"S Blau","year":"2008","unstructured":"Blau S, Robertson S, Johnstone M (2008) Disaster victim identification: new applications for postmortem computed tomography. J Forensic Sci 53(4):956\u2013961","journal-title":"J Forensic Sci"},{"issue":"2\u20133","key":"3729_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2006.05.016","volume":"165","author":"A Schmeling","year":"2007","unstructured":"Schmeling A, Geserick G, Reisinger W, Olze A (2007) Age estimation. Forensic Sci Int 165(2\u20133):178\u2013181","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"issue":"6","key":"3729_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2009.01176.x","volume":"54","author":"AM Christensen","year":"2009","unstructured":"Christensen AM, Crowder CM (2009) Evidentiary standards for forensic anthropology. J Forensic Sci 54(6):1211\u20131216","journal-title":"J Forensic Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"3729_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcm.2016.02.012","volume":"15","author":"TK Koo","year":"2016","unstructured":"Koo TK, Li MY (2016) A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. J Chiropr Med 15(2):155\u2013163","journal-title":"J Chiropr Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"3729_CR8","first-page":"44","volume":"113","author":"A Schmeling","year":"2016","unstructured":"Schmeling A, Dettmeyer R, Rudolf E, Vieth V, Geserick G (2016) Forensic age estimation: methods, certainty, and the law. Dtsch Arztebl Int 113(4):44","journal-title":"Dtsch Arztebl Int"},{"issue":"1","key":"3729_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1093\/bmb\/lds014","volume":"102","author":"A Aynsley-Green","year":"2012","unstructured":"Aynsley-Green A, Cole TJ, Crawley H, Lessof N, Boag LR, Wallace RMM (2012) Medical, statistical, ethical and human rights considerations in the assessment of age in children and young people subject to immigration control. Br Med Bull 102(1):17\u201342","journal-title":"Br Med Bull"},{"issue":"3","key":"3729_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-195909000-00030","volume":"238","author":"WW Greulich","year":"1959","unstructured":"Greulich WW, Pyle SI (1959) Radiographic atlas of skeletal development of the hand and wrist. Am J Med Sci 238(3):393","journal-title":"Am J Med Sci"},{"issue":"801","key":"3729_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1259\/0007-1285-67-801-848","volume":"67","author":"DG King","year":"1994","unstructured":"King DG, Steventon DM, O\u2019sullivan MP, Cook AM, Hornsby VPL, Jefferson IG, King PR (1994) Reproducibility of bone ages when performed by radiology registrars: an audit of Tanner and Whitehouse II versus Greulich and Pyle methods. Br J Radiol 67(801):848\u2013851","journal-title":"Br J Radiol"},{"key":"3729_CR12","unstructured":"Tanner JM, Whitehouse RH, Cameron N, Marshall WA, Healy MJR, Goldstein H (2001) Assessment of skeletal maturity and prediction of adult height (TW2 method) (pp. 1-110). London"},{"issue":"1","key":"3729_CR13","first-page":"118","volume":"74","author":"C Flores-Mir","year":"2004","unstructured":"Flores-Mir C, Nebbe B, Major PW (2004) Use of skeletal maturation based on hand-wrist radiographic analysis as a predictor of facial growth: a systematic review. Angle Orthod 74(1):118\u2013124","journal-title":"Angle Orthod"},{"key":"3729_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baccetti T, Franchi L, McNamara JA Jr (2005, September) The cervical vertebral maturation (CVM) method for the assessment of optimal treatment timing in dentofacial orthopedics. Seminars in orthodontics, vol 11. WB Saunders, pp 119\u2013129. 3","DOI":"10.1053\/j.sodo.2005.04.005"},{"issue":"2\u20133","key":"3729_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2004.12.028","volume":"156","author":"O Ribaux","year":"2006","unstructured":"Ribaux O, Walsh SJ, Margot P (2006) The contribution of forensic science to crime analysis and investigation: forensic intelligence. Forensic Sci Int 156(2\u20133):171\u2013181","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"issue":"1","key":"3729_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2493080468","volume":"250","author":"A Zhang","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zhang A, Sayre JW, Vachon L, Liu BJ, Huang HK (2009) Racial differences in growth patterns of children assessed on the basis of bone age. Radiology 250(1):228\u2013235","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"issue":"6","key":"3729_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-008-0254-2","volume":"122","author":"A Schmeling","year":"2008","unstructured":"Schmeling A, Grundmann C, Fuhrmann A, Kaatsch HJ, Knell B, Ramsthaler F, Geserick G (2008) Criteria for age estimation in living individuals. Int J Legal Med 122(6):457\u2013460","journal-title":"Int J Legal Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"3729_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2018180736","volume":"290","author":"SS Halabi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Halabi SS, Prevedello LM, Kalpathy-Cramer J, Mamonov AB, Bilbily A, Cicero M, Flanders AE (2019) The RSNA pediatric bone age machine learning challenge. Radiology 290(2):498\u2013503","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"3729_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iglovikov VI, Rakhlin A, Kalinin AA, Shvets AA Paediatric bone age assessment using deep convolutional neural networks. In International Workshop on Deep Learning in Medical Image Analysis (pp. 300\u2013308). Cham: Springer International Publishing","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-00889-5_34"},{"key":"3729_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Li X, Yang T, Wang X, Ahmad S, Xiang S, L.,&, Wang Q (2018), September (2018). Regression convolutional neural network for automated pediatric bone age assessment from hand radiograph. IEEE journal of biomedical and health informatics, 23(5), 2030\u20132038","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2018.2876916"},{"issue":"7","key":"3729_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2374","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2020.2968765","volume":"39","author":"N Vila-Blanco","year":"2020","unstructured":"Vila-Blanco N, Carreira MJ, Varas-Quintana P, Balsa-Castro C, Tomas I (2020) Deep neural networks for chronological age estimation from OPG images. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 39(7):2374\u20132384","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Med Imaging"},{"key":"3729_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2019.01.004","volume":"62","author":"J Bewes","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bewes J, Low A, Morphett A, Pate FD, Henneberg M (2019) Artificial intelligence for sex determination of skeletal remains: application of a deep learning artificial neural network to human skulls. J Forensic Leg Med 62:40\u201343","journal-title":"J Forensic Leg Med"},{"key":"3729_CR23","unstructured":"Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 509 U.S.579, 589 (1993)"},{"key":"3729_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2023.160","volume":"17","author":"S Kahraman","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kahraman S (2023) A comprehensive health economic analysis of the 2023 Turkey earthquake. Disaster Med Public Health Prep 17:e503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/dmp.2023.160","journal-title":"Disaster Med Public Health Prep"},{"issue":"1","key":"3729_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-18395-z","volume":"24","author":"JK Balikuddembe","year":"2024","unstructured":"Balikuddembe JK, Reinhardt JD, Vahid G, Di B (2024) A scoping review of post-earthquake healthcare for vulnerable groups of the 2023 Turkey-Syria earthquakes. BMC Public Health 24(1):945. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-024-18395-z","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"3729_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1680","DOI":"10.3390\/make5040083","volume":"5","author":"J Terven","year":"2023","unstructured":"Terven J, Cordova-Esparza D (2023) A comprehensive review of YOLO architectures in computer vision: from YOLOv1 to YOLOv8 and YOLO-NAS. Mach Learn Knowl Extr 5(4):1680\u20131716","journal-title":"Mach Learn Knowl Extr"},{"key":"3729_CR27","unstructured":"Tan M, Le Q (2019), May Efficientnet: Rethinking model scaling for convolutional neural networks. In International conference on machine learning (pp. 6105\u20136114). PMLR"},{"issue":"1","key":"3729_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1159\/000329372","volume":"76","author":"DD Martin","year":"2011","unstructured":"Martin DD, Wit JM, Hochberg ZE, S\u00e4vendahl L, Van Rijn RR, Fricke O, Hochberg Z, Cameron N, Caliebe J, Hertel T, Kiepe D, Albertsson-Wikland K, Thodberg HH, Binder G, Ranke MB (2011) The use of bone age in clinical practice\u2013part 1. Horm Res Paediatr 76(1):1\u20139","journal-title":"Horm Res Paediatr"},{"key":"3729_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2529310","author":"JR Landis","year":"1977","unstructured":"Landis JR, Koch GG (1977) The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2529310","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"3729_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2010.02.031","volume":"201","author":"D Sweet","year":"2010","unstructured":"Sweet D (2010) INTERPOL DVI best-practice standards\u2014an overview. Forensic Sci Int 201(1\u20133):18\u201321","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"3729_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2006.02.004","volume":"159","author":"E De Valck","year":"2006","unstructured":"De Valck E (2006) Major incident response: collecting ante-mortem data. Forensic Sci Int 159(Suppl 1):S15\u2013S19","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"issue":"6","key":"3729_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0030195","volume":"3","author":"OW Morgan","year":"2006","unstructured":"Morgan OW, Sribanditmongkol P, Perera C, Sulasmi Y, Van Alphen D, Patan A (2006) Mass fatality management following the South Asian tsunami disaster: case studies in Thailand, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. PLoS Med 3(6):e195","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"3729_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s12024-011-9275-0","volume":"8","author":"AZ Mundorff","year":"2012","unstructured":"Mundorff AZ (2012) Integrating forensic anthropology into disaster victim identification. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 8(2):131\u2013139","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Med Pathol"},{"issue":"2","key":"3729_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1007\/s12024-011-9300-3","volume":"8","author":"Y Schuliar","year":"2012","unstructured":"Schuliar Y, Knudsen PJ (2012) Role of forensic pathologists in mass disasters. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 8(2):164\u2013173","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Med Pathol"},{"issue":"2","key":"3729_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.81.2.172","volume":"81","author":"RK Bull","year":"1999","unstructured":"Bull RK, Edwards PD, Kemp PM, Fry S, Hughes IA (1999) Bone age assessment: a large scale comparison of the Greulich and Pyle, and Tanner and Whitehouse (TW2) methods. Arch Dis Child 81(2):172\u2013173","journal-title":"Arch Dis Child"},{"key":"3729_CR36","unstructured":"European Asylum Support Office (EASO) (2018) Practical guide on age assessment, 2nd edition. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2847\/861229. https:\/\/euaa.europa.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/EASO-Practical-Guide-on-Age-Assessment-2018_IT.pdf [Accessed: 26 Jul 2024]"},{"issue":"S47","key":"3729_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.20948","volume":"137","author":"DC Dirkmaat","year":"2008","unstructured":"Dirkmaat DC, Cabo LL, Ousley SD, Symes SA (2008) New perspectives in forensic anthropology. Am J Phys Anthropology: Official Publication Am Association Phys Anthropologists 137(S47):33\u201352","journal-title":"Am J Phys Anthropology: Official Publication Am Association Phys Anthropologists"},{"key":"3729_CR38","unstructured":"Krogman WM, Iscan MY The human skeleton in forensic medicine, Thomas CC (1986) Springfield, IL, 15(2), 202-08"},{"issue":"3","key":"3729_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS2002242","volume":"48","author":"CP Campobasso","year":"2003","unstructured":"Campobasso CP, Falamingo R, Vinci F (2003) Investigation of Italy\u2019s deadliest building collapse: forensic aspects of a mass disaster. J Forensic Sci 48(3):635\u2013639","journal-title":"J Forensic Sci"},{"key":"3729_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.media.2016.10.010","volume":"36","author":"C Spampinato","year":"2017","unstructured":"Spampinato C, Palazzo S, Giordano D, Aldinucci M, Leonardi R (2017) Deep learning for automated skeletal bone age assessment in X-ray images. Med Image Anal 36:41\u201351","journal-title":"Med Image Anal"},{"issue":"1","key":"3729_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2017170236","volume":"287","author":"DB Larson","year":"2018","unstructured":"Larson DB, Chen MC, Lungren MP, Halabi SS, Stence NV, Langlotz CP (2018) Performance of a deep-learning neural network model in assessing skeletal maturity on pediatric hand radiographs. Radiology 287(1):313\u2013322","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"issue":"5","key":"3729_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2030","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2018.2876916","volume":"23","author":"X Ren","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ren X, Li T, Yang X, Wang S, Ahmad S, Xiang L, Wang Q (2018) Regression convolutional neural network for automated pediatric bone age assessment from hand radiograph. IEEE J Biomed Health Inf 23(5):2030\u20132038","journal-title":"IEEE J Biomed Health Inf"},{"issue":"6","key":"3729_CR43","volume":"1","author":"I Pan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pan I, Thodberg HH, Halabi SS, Kalpathy-Cramer J, Larson DB (2019) Improving automated pediatric bone age estimation using ensembles of models from the 2017 RSNA machine learning challenge. Radiology: Artificial Intelligence 1(6):e190053","journal-title":"Radiology: Artificial Intelligence"},{"issue":"4","key":"3729_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/s10278-017-9955-8","volume":"30","author":"H Lee","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lee H, Tajmir S, Lee J, Zissen M, Yeshiwas BA, Alkasab TK, Choy G, Do S (2017) Fully automated deep learning system for bone age assessment. J Digit Imaging 30(4):427\u2013441","journal-title":"J Digit Imaging"},{"issue":"1","key":"3729_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40537-020-00347-0","volume":"7","author":"A Wibisono","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wibisono A, Mursanto P (2020) Multi region-based feature connected layer (RB-FCL) of deep learning models for bone age assessment. J Big Data 7(1):67","journal-title":"J Big Data"},{"key":"3729_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33346","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2903131","volume":"7","author":"SJ Son","year":"2019","unstructured":"Son SJ, Song Y, Kim N, Do Y, Kwak N, Lee MS, Lee BD (2019) TW3-based fully automated bone age assessment system using deep neural networks. IEEE Access 7:33346\u201333358","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Legal Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00414-026-03729-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00414-026-03729-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00414-026-03729-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T08:02:18Z","timestamp":1781683338000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00414-026-03729-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["3729"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00414-026-03729-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["0937-9827","1437-1596"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0937-9827","type":"print"},{"value":"1437-1596","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"19 November 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 March 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study uses publicly available radiographic datasets (RSNA and Roboflow HandBone). No human subjects were recruited and no additional radiographic data were acquired; therefore, ethical approval was not required.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval"}},{"value":"Informed consent was not required as the study utilized anonymized, publicly available datasets.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Informed consent"}},{"value":"The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}