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The disease is clinically characterized by proximal paralysis and secondary skeletal muscle atrophy. New disease-modifying drugs driving\n                    <jats:italic>SMN<\/jats:italic>\n                    gene expression have been developed in the past decade and have revolutionized SMA treatment. The rise of treatment options led to a concomitant need of biomarkers for therapeutic guidance and an improved disease monitoring. Intensive efforts have been undertaken to develop suitable markers, and numerous candidate biomarkers for diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive values have been identified. The most promising markers include appliance-based measures such as electrophysiological and imaging-based indices as well as molecular markers including SMN-related proteins and markers of neurodegeneration and skeletal muscle integrity. However, none of the proposed biomarkers have been validated for the clinical routine yet. In this narrative review, we discuss the most promising candidate biomarkers for SMA and expand the discussion by addressing the largely unfolded potential of muscle integrity markers, especially in the context of upcoming muscle-targeting therapies. While the discussed candidate biomarkers hold potential as either diagnostic (e.g., SMN-related biomarkers), prognostic (e.g., markers of neurodegeneration, imaging-based markers), predictive (e.g., electrophysiological markers) or response markers (e.g., muscle integrity markers), no single measure seems to be suitable to cover all biomarker categories. Hence, a combination of different biomarkers and clinical assessments appears to be the most expedient solution at the time.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-023-11787-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,8]],"date-time":"2023-06-08T07:02:11Z","timestamp":1686207731000},"page":"4157-4178","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Biomarkers in 5q-associated spinal muscular atrophy\u2014a narrative review"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"270","author":[{"given":"H. 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