{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T15:29:31Z","timestamp":1792682971509,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,5]],"date-time":"2024-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728086400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,5]],"date-time":"2024-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728086400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008349","name":"Universit\u00e4t Duisburg-Essen","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008349","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100017590","name":"Universit\u00e4tsklinikum Essen","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100017590","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Neurol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Encephalitis originates from diverse autoimmune and infectious etiologies. Diagnostic challenges arise due to the spectrum of presentation and the frequent absence of specific biomarkers. This study aimed to comprehensively characterize and differentiate autoimmune encephalitis (AE) from infectious encephalitis (IE) in adults, and disentangle clinical, paraclinical, and therapeutic differences.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>A cohort study spanning 10\u00a0years was conducted across three Austrian tertiary care hospitals. Inclusion criteria comprised adults with probable or definite encephalitis. Demographics, clinical features, technical findings, treatment modalities, and outcomes were collected from the electronic patient files. A follow-up was performed via telephone interviews and clinical visits.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Of 149 patients, 17% had AE, 73% IE, and 10% encephalitis of unknown etiology. Significant differences between AE and IE included the prevalence of acute symptomatic seizures (AE: 85% vs. IE: 20%, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u20090.001), fever (8% vs. 72%, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u20090.001), headache (15% vs. 61%, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u20090.001), and focal neurological deficits (56% vs. 23%, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.004), respectively. Paraclinical differences comprised lower CSF pleocytosis in AE compared to IE (median 6 cells\/\u00b5l vs. 125 cells\/\u00b5l, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u20090.001). Epileptic discharges on EEG and MRI lesions were more prevalent in AE than IE (50% vs. 14%, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u20090.001; 50% vs. 28%, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.037). The modified Rankin Scale scores at discharge and last follow-up (median duration 2304\u00a0days, IQR 1433\u20133274) indicated favorable outcomes in both groups.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>This comprehensive analysis provides insights into the epidemiology, clinical, paraclinical, and therapeutic aspects and the outcomes of AE and IE in adults. We developed a diagnostic tool that facilitates early differentiation between AE and IE, aiding in timely therapeutic decision-making.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-024-12712-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,5]],"date-time":"2024-10-05T10:01:27Z","timestamp":1728122487000},"page":"7583-7591","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Autoimmune and infectious encephalitis: development of a discriminative tool for early diagnosis and initiation of therapy"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"271","author":[{"given":"Tobias","family":"Moser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joachim","family":"Gruber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eirini","family":"Mylonaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincent","family":"B\u00f6hm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Schwarzenhofer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna R.","family":"Tr\u00f6scher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Lenzenweger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ingomar","family":"Krehan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"S\u00f6llradl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Leitinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raimund","family":"Helbok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eugen","family":"Trinka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tim J.","family":"von Oertzen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0776-6821","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Judith N.","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"12712_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1111\/imj.12974","volume":"46","author":"MP Newman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Newman MP, Blum S, Wong RCW et al (2016) Autoimmune encephalitis. Intern Med J 46:148\u2013157. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/imj.12974","journal-title":"Intern Med J"},{"key":"12712_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2017.02.003","volume":"47","author":"A Boucher","year":"2017","unstructured":"Boucher A, Herrmann JL, Morand P et al (2017) Epidemiology of infectious encephalitis causes in 2016. Med Mal Infect 47:221\u2013235. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.medmal.2017.02.003","journal-title":"Med Mal Infect"},{"key":"12712_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-015-2333-8","volume":"36","author":"L Zhao","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zhao L, Zhou M, Wang B et al (2015) Clinical characteristics and outcome of clinically diagnosed viral encephalitis in southwest China. Neurol Sci 36:2191\u20132197. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10072-015-2333-8","journal-title":"Neurol Sci"},{"key":"12712_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1080\/09602010701202238","volume":"17","author":"SM Pewter","year":"2007","unstructured":"Pewter SM, Williams WH, Haslam C, Kay JM (2007) Neuropsychological and psychiatric profiles in acute encephalitis in adults. Neuropsychol Rehabil 17:478\u2013505. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09602010701202238","journal-title":"Neuropsychol Rehabil"},{"issue":"Suppl 4","key":"12712_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2012.03615.x","volume":"53","author":"BD Michael","year":"2012","unstructured":"Michael BD, Solomon T (2012) Seizures and encephalitis: clinical features, management, and potential pathophysiologic mechanisms. Epilepsia 53(Suppl 4):63\u201371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2012.03615.x","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"12712_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2012.03842.x","volume":"20","author":"J Sellner","year":"2013","unstructured":"Sellner J, Trinka E (2013) Clinical characteristics, risk factors and pre-surgical evaluation of post-infectious epilepsy. Eur J Neurol 20:429\u2013439. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2012.03842.x","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1684\/j.1950-6945.2000.tb00375.x","volume":"2","author":"E Trinka","year":"2000","unstructured":"Trinka E, Dubeau F, Andermann F et al (2000) Clinical findings, imaging characteristics and outcome in catastrophic post-encephalitic epilepsy. Epileptic Disord 2:153\u2013162","journal-title":"Epileptic Disord"},{"key":"12712_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004541","volume":"89","author":"D Escudero","year":"2017","unstructured":"Escudero D, Guasp M, Ari\u00f1o H et al (2017) Antibody-associated CNS syndromes without signs of inflammation in the elderly. Neurology 89:1471\u20131475. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004541","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"12712_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2017.04.046","volume":"132","author":"J Varley","year":"2018","unstructured":"Varley J, Taylor J, Irani SR (2018) Autoantibody-mediated diseases of the CNS: structure, dysfunction and therapy. Neuropharmacology 132:71\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2017.04.046","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"12712_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.14581\/jer.16010","volume":"6","author":"SK Lee","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lee SK, Lee S-T (2016) The laboratory diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. J Epilepsy Res 6:45\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14581\/jer.16010","journal-title":"J Epilepsy Res"},{"key":"12712_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.7860\/JCDR\/2015\/16999.6966","volume":"9","author":"G Rawal","year":"2015","unstructured":"Rawal G, Yadav S, Wani UR, Ambastha AK (2015) HSV encephalitis with normal CSF\u2014a case report with review of literature. J Clin Diagn Res 9:7. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7860\/JCDR\/2015\/16999.6966","journal-title":"J Clin Diagn Res"},{"key":"12712_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir1038","volume":"54","author":"MS Gable","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gable MS, Sheriff H, Dalmau J et al (2012) The frequency of autoimmune N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis surpasses that of individual viral etiologies in young individuals enrolled in the california encephalitis project. Clin Infect Dis 54:899\u2013904. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cid\/cir1038","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"12712_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.3390\/v9060138","volume":"9","author":"PGE Kennedy","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kennedy PGE, Quan P-L, Lipkin WI (2017) Viral encephalitis of unknown cause: current perspective and recent advances. Viruses 9:138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/v9060138","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"12712_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182a2cc6d","volume":"81","author":"KT Thakur","year":"2013","unstructured":"Thakur KT, Motta M, Asemota AO et al (2013) Predictors of outcome in acute encephalitis. Neurology 81:793\u2013800. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182a2cc6d","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"12712_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1562","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2109.150295","volume":"21","author":"KC Bloch","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bloch KC, Glaser CA (2015) Encephalitis surveillance through the emerging infections program, 1997\u20132010. Emerg Infect Dis 21:1562\u20131567. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3201\/eid2109.150295","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"12712_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2015.04.007","volume":"29","author":"D Dubey","year":"2015","unstructured":"Dubey D, Samudra N, Gupta P et al (2015) Retrospective case series of the clinical features, management and outcomes of patients with autoimmune epilepsy. Seizure 29:143\u2013147. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.seizure.2015.04.007","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"12712_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0146455","volume":"11","author":"J-I Byun","year":"2016","unstructured":"Byun J-I, Lee S-T, Jung K-H et al (2016) Effect of immunotherapy on seizure outcome in patients with autoimmune encephalitis: a prospective observational registry study. PLoS ONE 11:e0146455. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0146455","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"12712_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70310-1","volume":"12","author":"MJ Titulaer","year":"2013","unstructured":"Titulaer MJ, McCracken L, Gabilondo I et al (2013) Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol 12:157\u2013165. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70310-1","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awx323","volume":"141","author":"J Thompson","year":"2018","unstructured":"Thompson J, Bi M, Murchison AG et al (2018) The importance of early immunotherapy in patients with faciobrachial dystonic seizures. Brain 141:348\u2013356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/awx323","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"12712_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2009.02735.x","volume":"15","author":"J Poissy","year":"2009","unstructured":"Poissy J, Wolff M, Dewilde A et al (2009) Factors associated with delay to acyclovir administration in 184 patients with herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Clin Microbiol Infect 15:560\u2013564. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2009.02735.x","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"12712_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2024.1359437","author":"LS Abbuehl","year":"2024","unstructured":"Abbuehl LS, Branca M, Ungureanu A et al (2024) Magnetic resonance imaging in acute meningoencephalitis of viral and unknown origin: frequent findings and prognostic potential. Front Neurol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fneur.2024.1359437","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2022.880693","author":"Q Kang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kang Q, Liao H, Yang L et al (2022) Clinical characteristics and short-term prognosis of children with antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalitis: a single-center cohort study. Front Pediatr. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fped.2022.880693","journal-title":"Front Pediatr"},{"key":"12712_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.642078","author":"S Qiao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Qiao S, Wu H, Liu L et al (2021) Characteristics and prognosis of autoimmune encephalitis in the east of China: a multi-center study. Front Neurol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fneur.2021.642078","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit458","volume":"57","author":"A Venkatesan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Venkatesan A, Tunkel AR, Bloch KC et al (2013) Case definitions, diagnostic algorithms, and priorities in encephalitis: consensus statement of the international encephalitis consortium. Clin Infect Dis 57:1114\u20131128. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cid\/cit458","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"12712_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00401-9","volume":"15","author":"F Graus","year":"2016","unstructured":"Graus F, Titulaer MJ, Balu R et al (2016) A clinical approach to diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. Lancet Neurol 15:391\u2013404. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00401-9","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1161\/01.str.19.5.604","volume":"19","author":"JC van Swieten","year":"1988","unstructured":"van Swieten JC, Koudstaal PJ, Visser MC et al (1988) Interobserver agreement for the assessment of handicap in stroke patients. Stroke 19:604\u2013607. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/01.str.19.5.604","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"issue":"Pt 3","key":"12712_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/115.3.783","volume":"115","author":"M Placencia","year":"1992","unstructured":"Placencia M, Sander JW, Shorvon SD et al (1992) Validation of a screening questionnaire for the detection of epileptic seizures in epidemiological studies. Brain 115(Pt 3):783\u2013794. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/115.3.783","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"12712_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.12550","volume":"55","author":"RS Fisher","year":"2014","unstructured":"Fisher RS, Acevedo C, Arzimanoglou A et al (2014) ILAE official report: a practical clinical definition of epilepsy. Epilepsia 55:475\u2013482. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/epi.12550","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"12712_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0282645","volume":"18","author":"S Defres","year":"2023","unstructured":"Defres S, Tharmaratnam K, Michael BD et al (2023) Clinical predictors of encephalitis in UK adults\u2014a multi-centre prospective observational cohort study. PLoS ONE 18:e0282645. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0282645","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"12712_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1136\/postgradmedj-2022-141812","volume":"99","author":"AM Alam","year":"2023","unstructured":"Alam AM, Easton A, Nicholson TR et al (2023) Encephalitis: diagnosis, management and recent advances in the field of encephalitides. Postgrad Med J 99:815\u2013825. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/postgradmedj-2022-141812","journal-title":"Postgrad Med J"},{"key":"12712_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70222-X","volume":"10","author":"J Granerod","year":"2010","unstructured":"Granerod J, Ambrose HE, Davies NW et al (2010) Causes of encephalitis and differences in their clinical presentations in England: a multicentre, population-based prospective study. Lancet Infect Dis 10:835\u2013844. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70222-X","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"12712_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1080\/1744666X.2019.1573676","volume":"15","author":"CG Bien","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bien CG (2019) Diagnosing autoimmune encephalitis based on clinical features and autoantibody findings. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 15:511\u2013527. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1744666X.2019.1573676","journal-title":"Expert Rev Clin Immunol"},{"key":"12712_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00703","volume":"9","author":"CG Bien","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bien CG (2018) Overinterpretation and overtreatment of low-titer antibodies against contactin-associated protein-2. Front Immunol 9:703. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00703","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"12712_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577598","volume":"357","author":"L Zuliani","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zuliani L, Marangoni S, De Gaspari P et al (2021) Epidemiology of neuronal surface antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalitis and antibody-based diagnostics. J Neuroimmunol 357:577598. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577598","journal-title":"J Neuroimmunol"},{"key":"12712_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/15357597221137417","volume":"23","author":"N Gaspard","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gaspard N (2022) Stop being so negative: favorable outcome and response to immune therapies in antibody-negative probable autoimmune encephalitis. Epilepsy Curr 23:35\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15357597221137417","journal-title":"Epilepsy Curr"},{"key":"12712_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6859","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12216859","volume":"12","author":"DA Worku","year":"2023","unstructured":"Worku DA (2023) Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE): from tick to pathology. J Clin Med 12:6859. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm12216859","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"12712_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1708712","volume":"378","author":"J Dalmau","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dalmau J, Graus F (2018) Antibody-mediated encephalitis. N Engl J Med 378:840\u2013851. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMra1708712","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"12712_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00434","volume":"9","author":"JN Wagner","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wagner JN, Kalev O, Sonnberger M et al (2018) Evaluation of clinical and paraclinical findings for the differential diagnosis of autoimmune and infectious encephalitis. Front Neurol 9:434. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fneur.2018.00434","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1213532","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1213532","volume":"14","author":"T Huang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Huang T, Liu F, Wang B et al (2023) Clinical characteristics and prognosis in patients with neuronal surface antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalitis: a single-center cohort study in China. Front Immunol 14:1213532. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1213532","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"12712_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51608","volume":"9","author":"HE Hoang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hoang HE, Robinson-Papp J, Mu L et al (2022) Determining an infectious or autoimmune etiology in encephalitis. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 9:1125\u20131135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/acn3.51608","journal-title":"Ann Clin Transl Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejro.2024.100552","volume":"12","author":"M Abunada","year":"2024","unstructured":"Abunada M, Nierobisch N, Ludovichetti R et al (2024) Autoimmune encephalitis: early and late findings on serial MR imaging and correlation to treatment timepoints. Eur J Radiol Open 12:100552. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ejro.2024.100552","journal-title":"Eur J Radiol Open"},{"key":"12712_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200178","volume":"11","author":"A Aboseif","year":"2024","unstructured":"Aboseif A, Li Y, Amin M et al (2024) Clinical determinants of longitudinal disability in LGI-1-IgG autoimmune encephalitis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 11:e200178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200178","journal-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm"},{"key":"12712_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14276","volume":"27","author":"JN Wagner","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wagner JN, Sonnberger M, Troescher A et al (2020) Patients with breakthrough tick-borne encephalitis suffer a more severe clinical course and display extensive magnetic resonance imaging changes. Eur J Neurol 27:1201\u20131209. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ene.14276","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2010.02970.x","volume":"17","author":"I Steiner","year":"2010","unstructured":"Steiner I, Budka H, Chaudhuri A et al (2010) Viral meningoencephalitis: a review of diagnostic methods and guidelines for management. Eur J Neurol 17:999-e57. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1468-1331.2010.02970.x","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25655","volume":"87","author":"D Dubey","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dubey D, Britton J, McKeon A et al (2020) Randomized placebo-controlled trial of intravenous immunoglobulin in autoimmune LGI1\/CASPR2 epilepsy. Ann Neurol 87:313\u2013323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ana.25655","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-021-10494-w","author":"JN Wagner","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wagner JN, Leibetseder A, Troescher A et al (2021) Efficacy and safety of intravenous immunoglobulins for the treatment of viral encephalitis: a systematic literature review. J Neurol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00415-021-10494-w","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3603","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-023-11715-0","volume":"270","author":"E Hodzic","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hodzic E, Hasbun R, Granillo A et al (2023) Steroids for the treatment of viral encephalitis: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. J Neurol 270:3603\u20133615. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00415-023-11715-0","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000035162","volume":"102","author":"Y Yokota","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yokota Y, Hirose S, Hara M, Nakajima H (2023) Long-term outcomes and health-related quality of life in patients with autoimmune encephalitis: an observational study. Medicine (Baltimore) 102:e35162. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/MD.0000000000035162","journal-title":"Medicine (Baltimore)"},{"key":"12712_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2377","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz635","volume":"70","author":"MA Hansen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hansen MA, Samannodi MS, Castelblanco RL, Hasbun R (2020) Clinical epidemiology, risk factors, and outcomes of encephalitis in older adults. Clin Infect Dis 70:2377\u20132385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cid\/ciz635","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"12712_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2023.2281688","author":"K Bergman","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bergman K, Fowler \u00c5, Ygberg S et al (2023) Neurocognitive outcome in children and adolescents following infectious encephalitis. Child Neuropsychol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09297049.2023.2281688","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol"},{"key":"12712_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25421","volume":"85","author":"J-A Lim","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lim J-A, Lee S-T, Moon J et al (2019) Development of the clinical assessment scale in autoimmune encephalitis. Ann Neurol 85:352\u2013358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ana.25421","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"12712_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200168","volume":"11","author":"J Brenner","year":"2024","unstructured":"Brenner J, Olijslagers SHC, Crijnen YS et al (2024) Clinical outcome assessments in encephalitis: a systematic review. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 11:e200168. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200168","journal-title":"Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm"}],"container-title":["Journal of Neurology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00415-024-12712-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00415-024-12712-7\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00415-024-12712-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]],"date-time":"2024-11-25T14:05:49Z","timestamp":1732543549000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00415-024-12712-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,5]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["12712"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00415-024-12712-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["0340-5354","1432-1459"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0340-5354","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-1459","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"5 July 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 September 2024","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 September 2024","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 October 2024","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Tim J von Oertzen has received payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, or manuscript writing support from Angelini Pharma, Eisai, GW Pharmaceuticals, Jazz Pharma, Livanova, and UCB Pharma and has served on advisory boards for Angelini Pharma, Arvelle Therapeutics, GW Pharmaceuticals, Jazz Pharma, and Zogenix Pharma outside the submitted work. Judith Wagner has received payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, or travel grants from Boehringer Ingelheim, Janssen-Cilag GmbH, Pfizer Pharma GmbH, Novartis Pharma GmbH, Roche Austria GmbH, and UCB Pharma AG and has served on advisory boards for Janssen-Cilag GmbH and Novartis Pharma GmbH outside the submitted work. Daniel Schwarzenhofer reports an unrestricted grant by Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co.\u00a0Eugen Trinka reports personal fees from EVER Pharma, Marinus, Arvelle, Angelini, Argenx, Medtronic, Biocodex, Bial-Portela & C\u00aa, NewBridge, GL Pharma, GlaxoSmithKline, Boehringer Ingelheim, LivaNova, Eisai, Epilog, UCB, Biogen, Sanofi, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, and Actavis. His institution received grants from Biogen, UCB Pharma, Eisai, Red Bull, Merck, Bayer, the European Union, FWF \u00d6sterreichischer Fond zur Wissenschaftsforderung, Bundesministerium f\u00fcr Wissenschaft und Forschung, and Jubil\u00e4umsfond der \u00d6sterreichischen Nationalbank. All the other authors report no conflicts of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflicts of interest"}}]}}