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These conditions need specialised clinicians to interpret multimodal retinal imaging, with diagnosis and intervention potentially delayed. With an increasing and ageing population, this is becoming a global health priority. One solution is the development of artificial intelligence (AI) software to facilitate rapid data processing. Herein, we review research offering decision support for the diagnosis, classification, monitoring, and treatment of retinal disease using AI. We have prioritised diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, inherited retinal disease, and retinopathy of prematurity. There is cautious optimism that these algorithms will be integrated into routine clinical practice to facilitate access to vision-saving treatments, improve efficiency of healthcare systems, and assist clinicians in processing the ever-increasing volume of multimodal data, thereby also liberating time for doctor-patient interaction and co-development of personalised management plans.\n<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-023-06052-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]],"date-time":"2023-05-11T05:20:55Z","timestamp":1683782455000},"page":"3283-3297","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":80,"title":["Artificial intelligence in retinal disease: clinical application, challenges, and future directions"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"261","author":[{"given":"Malena","family":"Daich Varela","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sagnik","family":"Sen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thales Antonio Cabral","family":"De Guimaraes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nathaniel","family":"Kabiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikolas","family":"Pontikos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Balaskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michel","family":"Michaelides","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"6052_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e144","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(20)30489-7","volume":"9","author":"Causes of blindness and vision impairment in","year":"2020","unstructured":"Causes of blindness and vision impairment in (2020) and trends over 30 years, and prevalence of avoidable blindness in relation to VISION 2020: the right to sight: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. 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