{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T15:28:48Z","timestamp":1793374128835,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":143,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747353600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747353600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Despite current screening models, enhanced imaging modalities, and treatment regimens, diabetic retinopathy (DR) remains one of the leading causes of vision loss in working age adults. DR can result in irreversible structural and functional retinal damage, leading to visual impairment and reduced quality of life. Given potentially irreversible photoreceptor damage, diagnosis and treatment at the earliest stages will provide the best opportunity to avoid visual disturbances or retinopathy progression. We will review herein the current structural imaging methods used for DR assessment and their capability of detecting DR in the first stages of disease. Imaging tools, such as fundus photography, optical coherence tomography, fundus fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography angiography and adaptive optics-assisted imaging will be reviewed. Finally, we describe the future of DR screening programmes and the introduction of artificial intelligence as an innovative approach to detecting subtle changes in the diabetic retina.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Clinical Trial Registration number<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>N\/A<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-025-06828-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T17:01:38Z","timestamp":1747414898000},"page":"2413-2425","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["How early can we detect diabetic retinopathy? A narrative review of imaging tools for structural assessment of the retina"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"263","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7160-2170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Megan","family":"Vaughan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philip","family":"Denmead","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicole","family":"Tay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ranjan","family":"Rajendram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michel","family":"Michaelides","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emily","family":"Patterson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"6828_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9136(199807)15:7<539::AID-DIA668>3.0.CO;2-S","volume":"15","author":"KGMM Alberti","year":"1998","unstructured":"Alberti KGMM, Zimmet PZ (1998) Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Provisional report of a WHO Consultation. Diabet Med 15:539\u2013553","journal-title":"Diabet Med"},{"key":"6828_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1136\/BJO.77.1.2","volume":"77","author":"JJ Harding","year":"1993","unstructured":"Harding JJ, Egerton M, Van Heyningen R, Harding RS (1993) Diabetes, glaucoma, sex, and cataract: analysis of combined data from two case control studies. Br J Ophthalmol 77:2\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/BJO.77.1.2","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(18)30128-1","volume":"7","author":"C Sabanayagam","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sabanayagam C, Banu R, Chee ML et al (2019) Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy: a systematic review. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 7:140\u2013149. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2213-8587(18)30128-1","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"issue":"1","key":"6828_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4174292","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/4174292","volume":"20137","author":"A Zaleska-Zmijewska","year":"2017","unstructured":"Zaleska-Zmijewska A, Piatkiewicz P, \u015amigielska B et al (2017) Retinal photoreceptors and microvascular changes in prediabetes measured with adaptive optics (rtx1\u2122): a case-control study. J Diabetes Res 20137(1):4174292. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2017\/4174292","journal-title":"J Diabetes Res"},{"key":"6828_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)62124-3","volume":"376","author":"N Cheung","year":"2010","unstructured":"Cheung N, Mitchell P, Wong TY (2010) Diabetic retinopathy. The Lancet 376:124\u2013136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)62124-3","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"6828_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e144","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(20)30489-7","volume":"9","author":"RRA Bourne","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bourne RRA, Steinmetz JD, Saylan M et al (2021) Causes of blindness and vision impairment in 2020 and trends over 30 years, and prevalence of avoidable blindness in relation to VISION 2020: the right to sight: an analysis for the global burden of disease study. Lancet Glob Health 9:e144. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(20)30489-7","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"6828_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-020-0961-6","volume":"34","author":"WM Amoaku","year":"2020","unstructured":"Amoaku WM, Ghanchi F, Bailey C et al (2020) Diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular oedema pathways and management: UK consensus working group. Eye 34:1\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41433-020-0961-6","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"6828_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yau JWY, Rogers SL, Kawasaki R et al (2012) Global prevalence and major risk factors of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 35. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/dc11-1909","DOI":"10.2337\/dc11-1909"},{"key":"6828_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2014.03.003","volume":"41","author":"J Cunha-Vaz","year":"2014","unstructured":"Cunha-Vaz J, Ribeiro L, Lobo C (2014) Phenotypes and biomarkers of diabetic retinopathy. Prog Retin Eye Res 41:90\u2013111","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"6828_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Scanlon PH, Aldington SJ, Stratton IM (2014) Delay in diabetic retinopathy screening increases the rate of detection of referable diabetic retinopathy. Diabetic Med 31. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/dme.12313","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.12313"},{"key":"6828_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wykoff CC, Khurana RN, Nguyen QD et al (2021) Risk of blindness among patients with diabetes and newly diagnosed diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 44. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/dc20-0413","DOI":"10.2337\/dc20-0413"},{"key":"6828_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-018-4692-1","volume":"61","author":"R Sim\u00f3","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sim\u00f3 R, Stitt AW, Gardner TW (2018) Neurodegeneration in diabetic retinopathy: does it really matter? Diabetologia 61:1902\u20131912","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"6828_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.87.6.747","volume":"87","author":"GL Ong","year":"2003","unstructured":"Ong GL, Ripley LG, Newsom RSB, Casswell AG (2003) Assessment of colour vision as a screening test for sight threatening diabetic retinopathy before loss of vision. Br J Ophthalmol 87:747\u2013752. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjo.87.6.747","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"2","key":"6828_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2020.08.003","volume":"66","author":"XD Chen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chen XD, Gardner TW (2021) A critical review: psychophysical assessments of diabetic retinopathy. Surv Ophthalmol 66(2):213\u2013230","journal-title":"Surv Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kirchhof B (2015) Handbook of Retinal OCT Eds: Jay S. Duker, Nadia K. Waheed, Darin R. Goldmann 2014, ISBN: 978\u20130\u2013323\u201318884\u20135 Elsevier\/Saunders. Graefe\u2019s Arch Clinic Exp Ophthalmol 253. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00417-014-2705-4","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-014-2705-4"},{"key":"6828_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Royle P, Mistry H, Auguste P et al (2015) The landmark trials: diabetic retinopathy study and early treatment diabetic retinopathy study. In Pan-retinal photocoagulation and other forms of laser treatment and drug therapies for non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy: systematic review and economic evaluation. NIHR Journals Library.","DOI":"10.3310\/hta19510"},{"key":"6828_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pramanik S, Chowdhury S, Ganguly U et al (2020) Visual contrast sensitivity could be an early marker of diabetic retinopathy. Heliyon 6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e05336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e05336"},{"key":"6828_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(16)30052-3","volume":"5","author":"GS Tan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Tan GS, Cheung N, Sim\u00f3 R et al (2017) Diabetic macular oedema. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 5:143\u2013155. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2213-8587(16)30052-3","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"issue":"4","key":"6828_CR19","first-page":"253","volume":"86","author":"J Friedenwald","year":"1950","unstructured":"Friedenwald J, Day R (1950) The vascular lesions of diabetic retinopathy. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 86(4):253\u2013254","journal-title":"Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp"},{"issue":"4","key":"6828_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(19)30411-5","volume":"8","author":"S Vujosevic","year":"2020","unstructured":"Vujosevic S, Aldington SJ, Silva P et al (2020) Screening for diabetic retinopathy: new perspectives and challenges. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 8(4):337\u2013347","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"6828_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen Q, Ma Q, Wu C et al (2017) Macular vascular fractal dimension in the deep capillary layer as an early indicator of microvascular loss for retinopathy in type 2 diabetic patients. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 58. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.17-21461","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-21461"},{"key":"6828_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e223","DOI":"10.1111\/AOS.12542","volume":"93","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zhang Y, Meng N, Lv Z et al (2015) The gene polymorphisms of UCP1 but not PPAR \u03b3 and TCF7L2 are associated with diabetic retinopathy in Chinese type 2 diabetes mellitus cases. Acta Ophthalmol 93:e223\u2013e229. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/AOS.12542","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.2147\/TACG.S31979","volume":"5","author":"R Azmy","year":"2012","unstructured":"Azmy R, Dawood A, Kilany A et al (2012) Association analysis of genetic variations of eNOS and \u03b12\u03b21 integrin genes with type 2 diabetic retinopathy. Appl Clin Genet 5:55. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/TACG.S31979","journal-title":"Appl Clin Genet"},{"key":"6828_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.3390\/genes12081200","volume":"12","author":"AD Bhatwadekar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bhatwadekar AD, Shughoury A, Belamkar A, Ciulla TA (2021) Genetics of diabetic retinopathy, a leading cause of irreversible blindness in the industrialized world. Genes (Basel) 12:1200. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/genes12081200","journal-title":"Genes (Basel)"},{"key":"6828_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/S00125-012-2796-6\/FIGURES\/5","volume":"56","author":"F He","year":"2013","unstructured":"He F, Xia X, Wu XF et al (2013) Diabetic retinopathy in predicting diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes and renal disease: a meta-analysis. Diabetologia 56:457\u2013466. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S00125-012-2796-6\/FIGURES\/5","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"issue":"1","key":"6828_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1080\/0886022X.2018.1456453","volume":"40","author":"J Zhang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zhang J, Wang Y, Li L et al (2018) Renal failure diabetic retinopathy may predict the renal outcomes of patients with diabetic nephropathy. Renal Fail 40(1):243\u2013251. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/0886022X.2018.1456453","journal-title":"Renal Fail"},{"key":"6828_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.2337\/DC11-0079","volume":"34","author":"CK Kramer","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kramer CK, Rodrigues TC, Canani LH et al (2011) Diabetic retinopathy predicts all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in both type 1 and 2 diabetes meta-analysis of observational studies. Diabetes Care 34:1238\u20131244. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/DC11-0079","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"6828_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Aiello LP (2014) Diabetic retinopathy and other ocular findings in the diabetes control and complications trial\/epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications study. Diabetes Care 37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/dc13-2251","DOI":"10.2337\/dc13-2251"},{"key":"6828_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s40123-018-0153-7","volume":"7","author":"BJ Fenner","year":"2018","unstructured":"Fenner BJ, Wong RL, Lam WC, Tan GS, Cheung GC (2018) Advances in retinal imaging and applications in diabetic retinopathy screening: a review. Ophthalmol Ther 7:333\u2013346","journal-title":"Ophthalmol Ther"},{"issue":"2","key":"6828_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816629491","volume":"10","author":"JKH Goh","year":"2016","unstructured":"Goh JKH, Cheung CY, Sim SS et al (2016) Retinal imaging techniques for diabetic retinopathy screening. J Diabetes Sci Technol 10(2):282\u2013294","journal-title":"J Diabetes Sci Technol"},{"key":"6828_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e102309","DOI":"10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0102309","volume":"9","author":"S R\u00e9gnier","year":"2014","unstructured":"R\u00e9gnier S, Malcolm W, Allen F et al (2014) Efficacy of anti-VEGF and laser photocoagulation in the treatment of visual impairment due to diabetic macular edema: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 9:e102309. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0102309","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"6828_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Scappaticci FA, Skillings JR, Holden SN et al (2007) Arterial thromboembolic events in patients with metastatic carcinoma treated with chemotherapy and bevacizumab. J Natl Cancer Inst 99. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jnci\/djm086","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djm086"},{"key":"6828_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jiao C, Eliott D, Spee C et al (2019) Apoptosis and angiofibrosis in diabetic tractional membranes after vascular endothelial growth factor inhibition: results of a prospective trial. report No. 2. Retina 39. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/IAE.0000000000001952","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0000000000001952"},{"key":"6828_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chong DY, Anand R, Williams PD et al (2010) Characterization of sterile intraocular inflammatory responses after intravitreal bevacizumab injection. Retina 30. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/IAE.0b013e3181dc04da","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0b013e3181dc04da"},{"issue":"7","key":"6828_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2013.107","volume":"27","author":"K Ghasemi Falavarjani","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ghasemi Falavarjani K, Nguyen QD (2013) Adverse events and complications associated with intravitreal injection of anti-VEGF agents: a review of literature. Eye 27(7):787\u2013794. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/eye.2013.107","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"6828_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.09.032","volume":"222","author":"B Zhang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhang B, Chou Y, Zhao X, Yang J, Chen Y (2021) Early detection of microvascular impairments with optical coherence tomography angiography in diabetic patients without clinical retinopathy: a meta-analysis. Am J Ophthalmol 222:226\u2013237","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/J.SURVOPHTHAL.2018.04.003","volume":"63","author":"H Safi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Safi H, Safi S, Hafezi-Moghadam A, Ahmadieh H (2018) Early detection of diabetic retinopathy. Surv Ophthalmol 63:601\u2013608. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.SURVOPHTHAL.2018.04.003","journal-title":"Surv Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(99)00227-5","volume":"128","author":"DS Fong","year":"1999","unstructured":"Fong DS, Barton FB, Bresnick GH (1999) Impaired color vision associated with diabetic retinopathy: early treatment diabetic retinopathy study report No. 15. Am J Ophthalmol 128:612\u2013617. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0002-9394(99)00227-5","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Barbur J, Ansari I, Canning C (2012) Colour vision losses in diabetes in the absence of proliferative retinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol 90. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1755-3768.2012.F073.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-3768.2012.F073.x"},{"issue":"9","key":"6828_CR40","first-page":"1304","volume":"60","author":"M Rodriguez-Carmona","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rodriguez-Carmona M, Bastaki Q, Barbur J (2019) Loss of color and flicker sensitivity in subjects at risk of developing diabetes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 60(9):1304","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"6828_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1801053","DOI":"10.1002\/MNFR.201801053","volume":"63","author":"MW Roark","year":"2019","unstructured":"Roark MW, Stringham JM (2019) Visual performance in the \u201cReal World\u201d: contrast sensitivity, visual acuity, and effects of macular carotenoids. Mol Nutr Food Res 63:1801053. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/MNFR.201801053","journal-title":"Mol Nutr Food Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"6828_CR42","first-page":"319692","volume":"2015","author":"N Pescosolido","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pescosolido N, Barbato A, Stefanucci A, Buomprisco G (2015) Role of electrophysiology in the early diagnosis and follow-up of diabetic retinopathy. J Diabetes Res 2015(1):319692","journal-title":"J Diabetes Res"},{"key":"6828_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Harrison WW, Bearse MA, Ng JS et al (2011) Multifocal electroretinograms predict onset of diabetic retinopathy in adult patients with diabetes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 52. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.10-5931","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.10-5931"},{"key":"6828_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/J.OPHTHA.2009.09.035","volume":"117","author":"EL Lamoureux","year":"2010","unstructured":"Lamoureux EL, Tai ES, Thumboo J et al (2010) Impact of diabetic retinopathy on vision-specific function. Ophthalmology 117:757\u2013765. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.OPHTHA.2009.09.035","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"6828_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Peate I (2019) The NHS diabetic eye screening programme. British J Healthcare Assist 13. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12968\/bjha.2019.13.12.596","DOI":"10.12968\/bjha.2019.13.12.596"},{"key":"6828_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Curran K, Piyasena P, Congdon N et al (2023) Inclusion of diabetic retinopathy screening strategies in national-level diabetes care planning in low- and middle-income countries: a scoping review. Health Res Policy Syst 21. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12961-022-00940-0","DOI":"10.1186\/s12961-022-00940-0"},{"key":"6828_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Huemer J, Wagner SK, Sim DA (2020) The evolution of diabetic retinopathy screening programmes: a chronology of retinal photography from 35 mm slides to artificial intelligence. Clin Ophthal 14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/OPTH.S261629","DOI":"10.2147\/OPTH.S261629"},{"issue":"4","key":"6828_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.12711","volume":"44","author":"ED Cole","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cole ED, Novais EA, Louzada RN, Waheed NK (2016) Contemporary retinal imaging techniques in diabetic retinopathy: a review. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 44(4):289\u2013299","journal-title":"Clin Exp Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"2","key":"6828_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296815624109","volume":"10","author":"FJ Pasquel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Pasquel FJ, Hendrick AM, Ryan M, Cason E, Ali MK, Narayan KV (2016) Cost-effectiveness of different diabetic retinopathy screening modalities. J Diabetes Sci Technol 10(2):301\u2013307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1932296815624109","journal-title":"J Diabetes Sci Technol"},{"issue":"2","key":"6828_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joco.2016.04.001","volume":"28","author":"K Ghasemi Falavarjani","year":"2016","unstructured":"Ghasemi Falavarjani K, Wang K, Khadamy J, Sadda SR (2016) Ultra-wide-field imaging in diabetic retinopathy; an overview. J Curr Ophthalmol 28(2):57\u201360","journal-title":"J Curr Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Markan A, Agarwal A, Arora A et al (2020) Novel imaging biomarkers in diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema. Ther Adv Ophthalmol 12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2515841420950513","DOI":"10.1177\/2515841420950513"},{"key":"6828_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sengupta S, Sindal MD, Besirli CG et al (2018) Screening for vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy in South India: comparing portable non-mydriatic and standard fundus cameras and clinical exam. Eye (Basingstoke) 32. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/eye.2017.199","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2017.199"},{"key":"6828_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1016\/J.OPHTHA.2015.01.008","volume":"122","author":"PS Silva","year":"2015","unstructured":"Silva PS, Cavallerano JD, Haddad NMN et al (2015) Peripheral lesions identified on ultrawide field imaging predict increased risk of diabetic retinopathy progression over 4 years. Ophthalmology 122:949\u2013956. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.OPHTHA.2015.01.008","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"6828_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1097\/APO.0000000000000432","volume":"10","author":"S Horie","year":"2021","unstructured":"Horie S, Kukimoto N, Kamoi K et al (2021) Blue widefield images of scanning laser ophthalmoscope can detect retinal ischemic areas in eyes with diabetic retinopathy. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila) 10:478\u2013485. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/APO.0000000000000432","journal-title":"Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila)"},{"issue":"1","key":"6828_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17017","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-96371-y","volume":"11","author":"T Sakono","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sakono T, Terasaki H, Sonoda S et al (2021) Comparison of multicolor scanning laser ophthalmoscopy and optical coherence tomography angiography for detection of microaneurysms in diabetic retinopathy. Sci Rep 11(1):17017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-021-96371-y","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"6828_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Silva PS, Cavallerano JD, Tolls D et al (2014) Potential efficiency benefits of nonmydriatic ultrawide field retinal imaging in an ocular telehealth diabetic retinopathy program. Diabetes Care 37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/dc13-1292","DOI":"10.2337\/dc13-1292"},{"key":"6828_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"van Wijngaarden P, Scanlon PH (2017) Imaging techniques in diabetic retinopathy. Practical manual of diabetic retinopathy management, 54-85. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9781119058984.CH5","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119058984.CH5"},{"key":"6828_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Joltikov KA, de Castro VM, Davila JR et al (2017) Multidimensional functional and structural evaluation reveals neuroretinal impairment in early diabetic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 58. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.17-21863","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-21863"},{"key":"6828_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dimitrova G, Chihara E, Takahashi H et al (2017) Quantitative retinal optical coherence tomography angiography in patients with diabetes without diabetic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 58. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.16-20531","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.16-20531"},{"key":"6828_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1080\/02713683.2021.1908566","volume":"46","author":"K Xiong","year":"2021","unstructured":"Xiong K, Gong X, Li W et al (2021) Comparison of macular thickness measurements using swept-source and spectral-domain optical coherence tomography in healthy and diabetic subjects. Curr Eye Res 46:1567\u20131573. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02713683.2021.1908566","journal-title":"Curr Eye Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"6828_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2011.293","volume":"26","author":"MA Ibrahim","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ibrahim MA, Sepah YJ, Symons RCA et al (2011) Spectral- and time-domain optical coherence tomography measurements of macular thickness in normal eyes and in eyes with diabetic macular edema. Eye 26(3):454\u2013462. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/eye.2011.293","journal-title":"Eye"},{"issue":"11","key":"6828_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7494","DOI":"10.1167\/IOVS.14-14043","volume":"55","author":"T R\u00f6ck","year":"2014","unstructured":"R\u00f6ck T, Bartz-Schmidt KU, Bramkamp M, R\u00f6ck D (2014) Influence of axial length on thickness measurements using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 55(11):7494\u20137498. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/IOVS.14-14043","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"13","key":"6828_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2700","DOI":"10.3390\/APP9132700","volume":"9","author":"L S\u00e1nchez Brea","year":"2019","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez Brea L, Andrade De Jesus D, Shirazi MF et al (2019) Review on retrospective procedures to correct retinal motion artefacts in OCT imaging. Appl Sci 9(13):2700. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/APP9132700","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"key":"6828_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bussel II, Wollstein G, Schuman JS (2014) OCT for glaucoma diagnosis, screeningand detection of glaucoma progression. British J Ophthal 98. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2013-304326","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2013-304326"},{"issue":"1","key":"6828_CR65","first-page":"6096017","volume":"2021","author":"S Fragiotta","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fragiotta S, Abdolrahimzadeh S, Dolz-Marco R et al (2021) Significance of hyperreflective foci as an optical coherence tomography biomarker in retinal diseases: characterization and clinical implications. J Ophthalmol 2021(1):6096017","journal-title":"J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Baudoin C, Maneschi F, Quentel G et al (1983) Quantitative evaluation of fluorescein angiograms: microaneurysm counts. Diabetes 32. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/diab.32.2.s8","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.32.2.s8"},{"key":"6828_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40942-015-0005-8","volume":"1","author":"TE de Carlo","year":"2015","unstructured":"de Carlo TE, Romano A, Waheed NK, Duker JS (2015) A review of optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA). Int J Retina Vitreous 1:1\u201315","journal-title":"Int J Retina Vitreous"},{"key":"6828_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/S40942-020-00262-9\/FIGURES\/9","volume":"6","author":"EC Greig","year":"2020","unstructured":"Greig EC, Duker JS, Waheed NK (2020) A practical guide to optical coherence tomography angiography interpretation. Int J Retina Vitreous 6:1\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/S40942-020-00262-9\/FIGURES\/9","journal-title":"Int J Retina Vitreous"},{"key":"6828_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1038\/S41433-020-01233-Y","volume":"35","author":"Z Sun","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sun Z, Yang D, Tang Z et al (2021) Optical coherence tomography angiography in diabetic retinopathy: an updated review. Eye 35:149. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/S41433-020-01233-Y","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"6828_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101280","DOI":"10.1016\/J.AJOC.2022.101280","volume":"25","author":"PH Wright","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wright PH, Khalid H, Keane PA (2022) The utility of wide-field optical coherence tomography angiography in diagnosis and monitoring of proliferative diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep 25:101280. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.AJOC.2022.101280","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep"},{"key":"6828_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pichi F, Smith SD, Abboud EB et al (2020) Wide-field optical coherence tomography angiography for the detection of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Graefe\u2019s Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 258. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00417-020-04773-x","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-020-04773-x"},{"key":"6828_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.3928\/23258160-20160126-03","volume":"47","author":"TE De Carlo","year":"2016","unstructured":"De Carlo TE, Bonini Filho MA, Baumal CR et al (2016) Evaluation of preretinal neovascularization in proliferative diabetic retinopathy using optical coherence tomography angiography. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina 47:115\u2013119. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3928\/23258160-20160126-03","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina"},{"key":"6828_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vujosevic S, Toma C, Villani E et al (2019) Early detection of microvascular changes in patients with diabetes mellitus without and with diabetic retinopathy: comparison between different swept-source OCT-A instruments. J Diabetes Res 2019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2019\/2547216","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/2547216"},{"key":"6828_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Di G, Weihong Y, Xiao Z et al (2016) A morphological study of the foveal avascular zone in patients with diabetes mellitus using optical coherence tomography angiography. Graefe\u2019s Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 254. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00417-015-3143-7","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-015-3143-7"},{"key":"6828_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fleissig E, Adhi M, Sigford DK, Barr CC (2020) Foveal vasculature changes and nonperfusion in patients with diabetes types I and II with no evidence of diabetic retinopathy. Graefe\u2019s Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 258. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00417-019-04588-5","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-019-04588-5"},{"issue":"2","key":"6828_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2007.12.001","volume":"27","author":"N Cheung","year":"2008","unstructured":"Cheung N, Wong TY (2008) Diabetic retinopathy and systemic vascular complications. Prog Retin Eye Res 27(2):161\u2013176","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"6828_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1136\/BJOPHTHALMOL-2019-315365","volume":"105","author":"H Khalid","year":"2021","unstructured":"Khalid H, Schwartz R, Nicholson L et al (2021) Widefield optical coherence tomography angiography for early detection and objective evaluation of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 105:118\u2013123. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/BJOPHTHALMOL-2019-315365","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"1","key":"6828_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-6757(99)90019-0","volume":"17","author":"JE Sinex","year":"1999","unstructured":"Sinex JE (1999) Pulse oximetry: principles and limitations. Am J Emerg Med 17(1):59\u201366","journal-title":"Am J Emerg Med"},{"key":"6828_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hardarson SH, Harris A, Karlsson RA et al (2006) Automatic retinal oximetry. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 47. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.06-0039","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.06-0039"},{"key":"6828_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.2174\/157339911797415620","volume":"7","author":"G Arden","year":"2011","unstructured":"Arden G, Sivaprasad S (2011) Hypoxia and oxidative stress in the causation of diabetic retinopathy. Curr Diabetes Rev 7:291\u2013304. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2174\/157339911797415620","journal-title":"Curr Diabetes Rev"},{"key":"6828_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2019.04.001","volume":"70","author":"E Stef\u00e1nsson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Stef\u00e1nsson E, Olafsdottir OB, Eliasdottir TS et al (2019) Retinal oximetry: Metabolic imaging for diseases of the retina and brain. Prog Retin Eye Res 70:1\u201322","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"6828_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Palsson O, Geirsdottir A, Hardarson SH et al (2012) Retinal oximetry images must be standardized: a methodological analysis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 53. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.11-8621","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.11-8621"},{"key":"6828_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Garg AK, Knight D, Lando L, Chao DL (2021) Advances in retinal oximetry. Transl Vis Sci Technol 10. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/tvst.10.2.5","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.10.2.5"},{"issue":"3","key":"6828_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2009.06.010","volume":"55","author":"G Dimitrova","year":"2010","unstructured":"Dimitrova G, Kato S (2010) Color doppler imaging of retinal diseases. Surv Ophthalmol 55(3):193\u2013214","journal-title":"Surv Ophthalmol"},{"key":"6828_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lieb WE, Cohen SM, Merton DA et al (1991) Color Doppler imaging of the eye and orbit: technique and normal vascular anatomy. Arch Ophthal 109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/archopht.1991.01080040095036","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1991.01080040095036"},{"key":"6828_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MacKinnon JR, McKillop G, O\u2019Brien C et al (2000) Colour Doppler imaging of the ocular circulation in diabetic retinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 78. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1034\/j.1600-0420.2000.078004386.x","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0420.2000.078004386.x"},{"key":"6828_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Madhpuriya G, Gokhale S, Agrawal A et al (2022) Evaluation of hemodynamic changes in retrobulbar blood vessels using color Doppler imaging in diabetic patients. Life 12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life12050629","DOI":"10.3390\/life12050629"},{"key":"6828_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Yilmaz Ovali G, Ersoy B, Tuncyurek O et al (2008) Doppler ultrasonography imaging of hemodynamic alteration of retrobulbar circulation in type 1 diabetic children and adolescents without retinopathy. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 79. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.diabres.2007.09.001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2007.09.001"},{"issue":"56","key":"6828_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.15557\/JoU.2014.0003","volume":"14","author":"M Pauk-Domanska","year":"2014","unstructured":"Pauk-Domanska M, Walasik-Szemplinska D (2014) Color Doppler imaging of the retrobulbar vessels in diabetic retinopathy. J Ultrason 14(56):28","journal-title":"J Ultrason"},{"key":"6828_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schweitzer D, Hammer M, Schweitzer F et al (2004) In vivo measurement of time-resolved autofluorescence at the human fundus. J Biomed Opt 9. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/1.1806833","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1806833"},{"key":"6828_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schmidt J, Peters S, Sauer L et al (2017) Fundus autofluorescence lifetimes are increased in non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol 95. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/aos.13174","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13174"},{"key":"6828_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schweitzer D, Deutsch L, Klemm M et al (2015) Fluorescence lifetime imaging ophthalmoscopy in type 2 diabetic patients who have no signs of diabetic retinopathy. J Biomed Opt 20. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/1.jbo.20.6.061106","DOI":"10.1117\/1.jbo.20.6.061106"},{"issue":"7","key":"6828_CR93","first-page":"583","volume":"17","author":"L Feeney","year":"1978","unstructured":"Feeney L (1978) Lipofuscin and melanin of human retinal pigment epithelium. Fluorescence, enzyme cytochemical, and ultrastructural studies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 17(7):583\u2013600","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"6828_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Heeman W, Steenbergen W, van Dam GM, Boerma EC (2019) Clinical applications of laser speckle contrast imaging: a review. J Biomed Opt 24. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117\/1.jbo.24.8.080901","DOI":"10.1117\/1.jbo.24.8.080901"},{"key":"6828_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mennes OA, van Netten JJ, van Baal JG et al (2021) The association between foot and ulcer microcirculation measured with laser speckle contrast imaging and healing of diabetic foot ulcers. J Clin Med 10. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm10173844","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10173844"},{"key":"6828_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Patel DD, Dhalla AH, Viehland C et al (2021) Development of a preclinical laser speckle contrast imaging instrument for assessing systemic and retinal vascular function in small rodents. Transl Vis Sci Technol 10. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/tvst.10.9.19","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.10.9.19"},{"key":"6828_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Patel DD, Lipinski DM (2020) Validating a low-cost laser speckle contrast imaging system as a quantitative tool for assessing retinal vascular function. Sci Rep 10. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-020-64204-z","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-64204-z"},{"key":"6828_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Feng X, Yu Y, Zou D et al (2022) Functional imaging of human retina using integrated multispectral and laser speckle contrast imaging. J Biophotonics 15. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jbio.202100285","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.202100285"},{"key":"6828_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rege A, Cunningham SI, Liu Y et al (2018) Noninvasive assessment of retinal blood flow using a novel handheld laser speckle contrast imager. Transl Vis Sci Technol 7. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/tvst.7.6.7","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.7.6.7"},{"key":"6828_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cristescu I-E, Ochinciuc R, Balta F, Zagrean L (2019) High-resolution imaging of diabetic retinopathy lesions using an adaptive optics retinal camera. Rom J Ophthalmol 63. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.22336\/rjo.2019.6","DOI":"10.22336\/rjo.2019.6"},{"key":"6828_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bek T (2014) Fine structure in diabetic retinopathy lesions as observed by adaptive optics imaging. A qualitative study. Acta Ophthalmol 92. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/aos.12464","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.12464"},{"key":"6828_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4244","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.14-14542","volume":"55","author":"D Scoles","year":"2014","unstructured":"Scoles D, Sulai YN, Langlo CS et al (2014) In vivo imaging of human cone photoreceptor inner segments. Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 55:4244. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.14-14542","journal-title":"Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"6828_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Liang J, Williams DR (1997) Aberrations and retinal image quality of the normal human eye. J Opt Soc America A 14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/josaa.14.002873","DOI":"10.1364\/josaa.14.002873"},{"key":"6828_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dubra A, Sulai Y, Norris JL et al (2011) Noninvasive imaging of the human rod photoreceptor mosaic using a confocal adaptive optics scanning ophthalmoscope. Biomed Opt Express 2. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/boe.2.001864","DOI":"10.1364\/boe.2.001864"},{"key":"6828_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Huang G, Qi X, Chui TYP et al (2012) A clinical planning module for adaptive optics SLO imaging. Optometry Vis Sci 89. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/OPX.0b013e318253e081","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e318253e081"},{"key":"6828_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Takayama K, Ooto S, Hangai M et al (2012) High-resolution imaging of the retinal nerve fiber layer in normal eyes using adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy. PLoS One 7. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0033158","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0033158"},{"key":"6828_CR107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gocho K, Kikuchi S, Kabuto T et al (2013) High-resolution en face images of microcystic macular edema in patients with autosomal dominant optic atrophy. Biomed Res Int 2013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2013\/676803","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/676803"},{"issue":"7","key":"6828_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.02.004","volume":"120","author":"M Lombardo","year":"2013","unstructured":"Lombardo M, Scarinci F, Ripandelli G et al (2013) Adaptive optics imaging of idiopathic epiretinal membranes. Ophthalmology 120(7):1508\u20131509","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"6828_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Scoles D, Flatter JA, Cooper RF et al (2016) Assessing photoreceptor structure associated with ellipsoid zone disruptions visualized with optical coherence tomography. Retina 36. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/IAE.0000000000000618","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0000000000000618"},{"issue":"2","key":"6828_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.403907","volume":"12","author":"A Dubra","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dubra A, Kowalski B, Carroll J et al (2021) Comparison of confocal and non-confocal split-detection cone photoreceptor imaging. Biomed Opt Express 12(2):737\u2013755. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/BOE.403907","journal-title":"Biomed Opt Express"},{"key":"6828_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9257","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.11-8481","volume":"52","author":"J Tam","year":"2011","unstructured":"Tam J, Dhamdhere KP, Tiruveedhula P et al (2011) Disruption of the retinal parafoveal capillary network in type 2 diabetes before the onset of diabetic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 52:9257. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.11-8481","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"6828_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tam J, Dhamdhere KP, Tiruveedhula P et al (2012) Subclinical capillary changes in non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Optom Vis Sci 89. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3182548b07","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3182548b07"},{"key":"6828_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Burns SA, Elsner AE, Chui TY et al (2014) In vivo adaptive optics microvascular imaging in diabetic patients without clinically severe diabetic retinopathy. Biomed Opt Express 5. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/boe.5.000961","DOI":"10.1364\/boe.5.000961"},{"key":"6828_CR114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0b013e3182a10850","volume":"34","author":"M Lombardo","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lombardo M, Parravano M, Lombardo G et al (2014) Adaptive optics imaging of parafoveal cones in type 1 diabetes. Retina 34:546\u2013557. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/IAE.0b013e3182a10850","journal-title":"Retina"},{"key":"6828_CR115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0151380","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0151380","volume":"11","author":"M Lombardo","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lombardo M, Parravano M, Serrao S et al (2016) Investigation of adaptive optics imaging biomarkers for detecting pathological changes of the cone mosaic in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. PLoS ONE 11:e0151380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0151380","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"6828_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6624","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.16-19537","volume":"57","author":"J Lammer","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lammer J, Prager SG, Cheney MC et al (2016) Cone photoreceptor irregularity on adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy correlates with severity of diabetic retinopathy and macular edema. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 57:6624. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.16-19537","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"6828_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Langlo CS, Erker LR, Parker M et al (2017) Repeatability and longitudinal assessment of foveal cone structure in CNGB3 -associated achromatopsia. Retina 37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/IAE.0000000000001434","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0000000000001434"},{"key":"6828_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100920","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2020.100920","volume":"83","author":"N Wynne","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wynne N, Carroll J, Duncan JL (2021) Promises and pitfalls of evaluating photoreceptor-based retinal disease with adaptive optics scanning light ophthalmoscopy (AOSLO). Prog Retin Eye Res 83:100920. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2020.100920","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"6828_CR119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.63.1.29","volume":"63","author":"E Bensinger","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bensinger E, Wang Y, Roorda A (2022) Patches of dysflective cones in eyes with no known disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 63:29. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.63.1.29","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"6828_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Elsner AE, Walker BR, Gilbert RN et al (2022) Cone photoreceptors in diabetic patients. Front Med (Lausanne) 9. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2022.826643","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.826643"},{"key":"6828_CR121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2577","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.2.002577","volume":"2","author":"RF Cooper","year":"2011","unstructured":"Cooper RF, Dubis AM, Pavaskar A et al (2011) Spatial and temporal variation of rod photoreceptor reflectance in the human retina. Biomed Opt Express 2:2577. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/BOE.2.002577","journal-title":"Biomed Opt Express"},{"key":"6828_CR122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3782","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.34.003782","volume":"34","author":"J Rha","year":"2009","unstructured":"Rha J, Schroeder B, Godara P, Carroll J (2009) Variable optical activation of human cone photoreceptors visualized using a short coherence light source. Opt Lett 34:3782. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OL.34.003782","journal-title":"Opt Lett"},{"key":"6828_CR123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5098","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.8.005098","volume":"8","author":"RF Cooper","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cooper RF, Tuten WS, Dubra A et al (2017) Non-invasive assessment of human cone photoreceptor function. Biomed Opt Express 8:5098. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/BOE.8.005098","journal-title":"Biomed Opt Express"},{"issue":"18","key":"6828_CR124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2142","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.29.002142","volume":"29","author":"A Unterhuber","year":"2004","unstructured":"Unterhuber A, Fercher AF, Hermann B et al (2004) Adaptive-optics ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography. Opt Lett 29(18):2142\u20132144. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OL.29.002142","journal-title":"Opt Lett"},{"key":"6828_CR125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"OCT51","DOI":"10.1167\/IOVS.16-19103","volume":"57","author":"RS Jonnal","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jonnal RS, Kocaoglu OP, Zawadzki RJ et al (2016) A review of adaptive optics optical coherence tomography: technical advances, scientific applications, and the future. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 57:OCT51\u2013OCT68. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/IOVS.16-19103","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"6828_CR126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2536","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.8.002536","volume":"8","author":"M Wojtkowski","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wojtkowski M, Kaluzny B, Zawadzki RJ (2017) Review of adaptive optics OCT (AO-OCT): principles and applications for retinal imaging [Invited]. Biomed Opt Express 8(5):2536\u20132562. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/BOE.8.002536","journal-title":"Biomed Opt Express"},{"key":"6828_CR127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0245293","DOI":"10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0245293","volume":"16","author":"A Reumueller","year":"2021","unstructured":"Reumueller A, Wassermann L, Salas M et al (2021) Three-dimensional composition of the photoreceptor cone layers in healthy eyes using adaptive-optics optical coherence tomography (AO-OCT). PLoS ONE 16:e0245293. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/JOURNAL.PONE.0245293","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"6828_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zawadzki RJ, Capps AG, Kim DY et al (2014) Progress on developing adaptive optics-optical coherence tomography for in vivo retinal imaging: monitoring and correction of eye motion artifacts. IEEE J Selected Topics Quantum Electron 20. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/JSTQE.2013.2288302","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTQE.2013.2288302"},{"key":"6828_CR129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/J.PRETEYERES.2018.08.002","volume":"68","author":"SA Burns","year":"2019","unstructured":"Burns SA, Elsner AE, Sapoznik KA et al (2019) Adaptive optics imaging of the human retina. Prog Retin Eye Res 68:1\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.PRETEYERES.2018.08.002","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"6828_CR130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1167\/IOVS.62.13.1","volume":"62","author":"F Datlinger","year":"2021","unstructured":"Datlinger F, Wassermann L, Reumueller A et al (2021) Assessment of detailed photoreceptor structure and retinal sensitivity in diabetic macular ischemia using adaptive optics-OCT and microperimetry. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 62:1\u20131. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/IOVS.62.13.1","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"6828_CR131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zaleska-\u017bmijewska A, Wawrzyniak ZM, D\u0105browska A, Szaflik JP (2019) Adaptive optics (rtx1) high-resolution imaging of photoreceptors and retinal arteries in patients with diabetic retinopathy. J Diabetes Res 2019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2019\/9548324","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/9548324"},{"key":"6828_CR132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1111\/J.1464-5491.2009.02870.X","volume":"27","author":"S Jones","year":"2010","unstructured":"Jones S, Edwards RT (2010) Diabetic retinopathy screening: a systematic review of the economic evidence. Diabet Med 27:249\u2013256. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/J.1464-5491.2009.02870.X","journal-title":"Diabet Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"6828_CR133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2260","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-020-01240-z","volume":"35","author":"L Faes","year":"2020","unstructured":"Faes L, Fu DJ, Huemer J et al (2020) A virtual-clinic pathway for patients referred from a national diabetes eye screening programme reduces service demands whilst maintaining quality of care. Eye 35(8):2260\u20132269. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41433-020-01240-z","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"6828_CR134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1159\/000502387","volume":"243","author":"TY Wong","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wong TY, Sabanayagam C (2020) Strategies to tackle the global burden of diabetic retinopathy: from epidemiology to artificial intelligence. Ophthalmologica 243:9\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000502387","journal-title":"Ophthalmologica"},{"issue":"9","key":"6828_CR135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0107-6","volume":"24","author":"J De Fauw","year":"2018","unstructured":"De Fauw J, Ledsam JR, Romera-Paredes B et al (2018) Clinically applicable deep learning for diagnosis and referral in retinal disease. Nat Med 24(9):1342\u20131350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41591-018-0107-6","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"6828_CR136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.ORET.2021.12.021","author":"X Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu X, Ali TK, Singh P et al (2022) Deep learning to detect OCT-derived diabetic macular edema from color retinal photographs: a multicenter validation study. Ophthalmol Retina. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.ORET.2021.12.021","journal-title":"Ophthalmol Retina"},{"key":"6828_CR137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Varadarajan AV, Bavishi P, Ruamviboonsuk P et al (2020) Predicting optical coherence tomography-derived diabetic macular edema grades from fundus photographs using deep learning. Nat Commun 11. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/S41467-019-13922-8","DOI":"10.1038\/S41467-019-13922-8"},{"key":"6828_CR138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Abr\u00e0moff MD, Lou Y, Erginay A et al (2016) Improved automated detection of diabetic retinopathy on a publicly available dataset through integration of deep learning. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 57. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.16-19964","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.16-19964"},{"key":"6828_CR139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Scotland GS, McNamee P, Philip S et al (2007) Cost-effectiveness of implementing automated grading within the national screening programme for diabetic retinopathy in Scotland. British J Ophthalmol 91. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjo.2007.120972","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2007.120972"},{"key":"6828_CR140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Vaghefi E, Yang S, Xie L et al (2021) THEIATM development, and testing of artificial intelligence-based primary triage of diabetic retinopathy screening images in New Zealand. Diabetic Med 38. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/dme.14386","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.14386"},{"key":"6828_CR141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Choi JY, Yoo TK, Seo JG et al (2017) Multi-categorical deep learning neural network to classify retinal images: a pilot study employing small database. PLoS One 12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0187336","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0187336"},{"key":"6828_CR142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ogurtsova K, Guariguata L, Barengo NC et al (2022) IDF diabetes Atlas: Global estimates of undiagnosed diabetes in adults for 2021. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 183. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109118"},{"key":"6828_CR143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rooney MR, Fang M, Ogurtsova K et al (2023) Global prevalence of prediabetes. Diabetes Care 46. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/dc22-2376","DOI":"10.2337\/dc22-2376"}],"container-title":["Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00417-025-06828-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00417-025-06828-3\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00417-025-06828-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T05:52:01Z","timestamp":1760075521000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00417-025-06828-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]]},"references-count":143,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["6828"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00417-025-06828-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["0721-832X","1435-702X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0721-832X","type":"print"},{"value":"1435-702X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"30 October 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"31 January 2025","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 April 2025","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 May 2025","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest (such as honoraria; educational grants; participation in speakers\u2019 bureaus; membership, employment, consultancies, stock ownership, or other equity interest; and expert testimony or patent-licensing arrangements), or non-financial interest (such as personal or professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge or beliefs) in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}},{"value":"This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethical approval"}}]}}