{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T19:10:57Z","timestamp":1792782657284,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787961600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787961600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Oslo","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01xtthb56","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int Arch Occup Environ Health"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The Effort\u2013Reward Imbalance (ERI) model is widely used to explain work-related stress and its health consequences. In policing, ERI research has primarily focused on sworn officers, while civilian employees have received limited attention. The purpose of this study was to examine whether ERI variables are associated with mental health and occupational functioning among police employees, and whether these associations differ between sworn officers and civilian personnel.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This cross-sectional study included sworn police officers and civilian employees in the Norwegian police. A random sample of 4000 employees was invited to complete an online survey, and 560 employees participated. Effort, reward, and overcommitment were measured with the 16-item short ERI questionnaire, and the ERI ratio was calculated from the effort and reward scales. Anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, work engagement, and job-related self-efficacy were assessed using separate questionnaires. Group differences were examined using analyses of covariance, and associations between ERI predictors and outcome variables were tested using hierarchical regression analyses with interaction terms for occupational role.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In the covariate-adjusted analytic sample (N = 558), no significant differences were observed between sworn officers and civilian employees in ERI variables, mental health outcomes, or occupational functioning. Higher ERI ratio was associated with higher anxiety symptoms (\u03b2 = 0.28) and depressive symptoms (\u03b2 = 0.33) and with lower work engagement (\u03b2 = \u2212\u00a00.27) and job-related self-efficacy (\u03b2 = \u2212\u00a00.16). Overcommitment showed stronger associations with anxiety symptoms (\u03b2 = 0.50) and depressive symptoms (\u03b2 = 0.46) and was inversely associated with job-related self-efficacy (\u03b2 = \u2212\u00a00.28) and work engagement (\u03b2 = \u2212\u00a00.14). Occupational role did not moderate these associations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The findings support the ERI model by demonstrating consistent associations between effort\u2013reward imbalance, overcommitment, mental health, and occupational functioning in policing. Neither the levels of the ERI variables nor their associations with the outcomes differed by occupational role, suggesting that ERI processes operate similarly across occupational categories within a highly regulated welfare-state context.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-026-02231-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T12:41:54Z","timestamp":1788007314000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The effort\u2013reward imbalance model in policing: associations with mental health and work functioning among sworn and civilian employees"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"99","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4378-9761","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bj\u00f8rn","family":"Lau","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7330-9290","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Knut Inge","family":"Fostervold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7535-2076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brita","family":"Bj\u00f8rkelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"2231_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1108\/PR-06-2014-0125","volume":"45","author":"A Allisey","year":"2016","unstructured":"Allisey A, Rodwell J, Noblet A (2016) An application of an extended effort\u2013reward imbalance model to police absenteeism behaviour. Pers Rev 45(4):663\u2013680. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/PR-06-2014-0125","journal-title":"Pers Rev"},{"issue":"5","key":"2231_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1002\/smi.2821","volume":"34","author":"E Arble","year":"2018","unstructured":"Arble E, Daugherty AM, Arnetz BB (2018) Models of first responder coping: police officers as a unique population. Stress Health 34(5):612\u2013621. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/smi.2821","journal-title":"Stress Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"2231_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1108\/02683940710733115","volume":"22","author":"AB Bakker","year":"2007","unstructured":"Bakker AB, Demerouti E (2007) The job demands\u2013resources model: state of the art. J Manag Psychol 22(3):309\u2013328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/02683940710733115","journal-title":"J Manag Psychol"},{"key":"2231_CR4","volume-title":"Self-efficacy: the exercise of control","author":"A Bandura","year":"1997","unstructured":"Bandura A (1997) Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. W. H. Freeman, New York, NY"},{"key":"2231_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bj\u00f8rkelo B, Valland TD, Nordberg T, Damen ML (2022) Ekte politiarbeid? Utvikling og uttesting av et prestisjehierarki for politiarbeid [Real police work? Development and testing of a prestige hierarchy for police work]. Tidsskrift for kj\u00f8nnsforskning, 46(3\u20134):150\u2013165. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18261\/tfk.46.3.4","DOI":"10.18261\/tfk.46.3.4"},{"key":"2231_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1007\/s12186-023-09316-z","volume":"16","author":"O Dahl","year":"2023","unstructured":"Dahl O, Damen M-L, Bj\u00f8rkelo B, Pellegrini Meling C, Rom Jensen M (2023) The role of verbal peer feedback in the police: a scoping review. Vocat Learn 16:227\u2013250. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12186-023-09316-z","journal-title":"Vocat Learn"},{"key":"2231_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dahl O, Damen ML (2026) Exploring how verbal feedback is perceived among peers in police workplace learning programs. Studies in Continuing Education, 1\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/0158037X.2026.2627584","DOI":"10.1080\/0158037X.2026.2627584"},{"issue":"3","key":"2231_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.86.3.499","volume":"86","author":"E Demerouti","year":"2001","unstructured":"Demerouti E, Bakker AB, Nachreiner F, Schaufeli WB (2001) The job demands\u2013resources model of burnout. J Appl Psychol 86(3):499\u2013512. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0021-9010.86.3.499","journal-title":"J Appl Psychol"},{"key":"2231_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.10.025","volume":"83","author":"P Eddy","year":"2017","unstructured":"Eddy P, Wertheim EH, Kingsley M, Wright BJ (2017) Associations between the effort\u2013reward imbalance model of workplace stress and indices of cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 83:252\u2013266. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.10.025","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"2231_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198522799.003.0003","volume-title":"Theories of organizational stress","author":"JR Edwards","year":"1998","unstructured":"Edwards JR, Caplan RD, Harrison RV (1998) Person\u2013environment fit theory: conceptual foundations, empirical evidence, and directions for future research. In: Cooper CL (ed) Theories of organizational stress. Oxford University Press, pp 28\u201367"},{"issue":"5","key":"2231_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1097\/JOM.0b013e3181dd086b","volume":"52","author":"WD Franke","year":"2010","unstructured":"Franke WD, Kohut ML, Russell DW, Yoo HL, Ekkekakis P, Ramey SP (2010) Is job-related stress the link between cardiovascular disease and the law-enforcement profession? J Occup Environ Med 52(5):561\u2013565. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/JOM.0b013e3181dd086b","journal-title":"J Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2231_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2020.101756","volume":"72","author":"MO Frenkel","year":"2021","unstructured":"Frenkel MO, Giessing L, Egger-Lampl S, Hutter V, Oudejans RRD, Kleygrewe L, Jaspaert E, Plessner H (2021) The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on European police officers: stress, demands, and coping resources. J Crim Justice 72:101756. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2020.101756","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"issue":"12","key":"2231_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144318","volume":"10","author":"S Garbarino","year":"2015","unstructured":"Garbarino S, Magnavita N (2015) Work stress and metabolic syndrome in police officers: a prospective study. PLoS ONE 10(12):e0144318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0144318","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"10","key":"2231_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0224259","volume":"14","author":"S Garbarino","year":"2019","unstructured":"Garbarino S, Magnavita N (2019) Sleep problems are a strong predictor of stress-related metabolic changes in police officers: a prospective study. PLoS ONE 14(10):e0224259. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0224259","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"7","key":"2231_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2013-002791","volume":"3","author":"S Garbarino","year":"2013","unstructured":"Garbarino S, Cuomo G, Chiorri C, Magnavita N (2013) Association of work-related stress with mental health problems in a special police force unit. BMJ Open 3(7):e002791. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2013-002791","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"issue":"2","key":"2231_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1093\/poq\/nfn011","volume":"72","author":"RM Groves","year":"2008","unstructured":"Groves RM, Peytcheva E (2008) The impact of nonresponse rates on nonresponse bias: a meta-analysis. Public Opin Q 72(2):167\u2013189. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/poq\/nfn011","journal-title":"Public Opin Q"},{"key":"2231_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003172840","volume-title":"Nordic equality and anti-discrimination laws in the throes of change: legal developments in Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Iceland","author":"A Hellum","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hellum A, Ikdahl I, Strand VB, Svensson E-M (2024) Nordic equality and anti-discrimination laws in the throes of change: legal developments in Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Iceland. Routledge. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781003172840"},{"key":"2231_CR18","volume-title":"Work and wellbeing in the Nordic countries: critical perspectives on the world''s best working lives","author":"H Hvid","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hvid H, Falkum E (2019) Work and wellbeing in the Nordic countries: critical perspectives on the world\u2019s best working lives. Routledge"},{"issue":"7","key":"2231_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-016-1154-2","volume":"89","author":"S Izawa","year":"2016","unstructured":"Izawa S, Tsutsumi A, Ogawa N (2016) Effort\u2013reward imbalance, cortisol secretion, and inflammatory activity in police officers with 24-h work shifts. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 89(7):1147\u20131154. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00420-016-1154-2","journal-title":"Int Arch Occup Environ Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"2231_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.2466\/pr0.100.2.525-530","volume":"100","author":"BL Janzen","year":"2007","unstructured":"Janzen BL, Muhajarine N, Tong Z, Kelly IW (2007) Effort\u2013reward imbalance, overcommitment, and psychological distress in Canadian police officers. Psychol Rep 100(2):525\u2013530. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2466\/pr0.100.2.525-530","journal-title":"Psychol Rep"},{"issue":"10","key":"2231_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.78.10.1336","volume":"78","author":"JV Johnson","year":"1988","unstructured":"Johnson JV, Hall EM (1988) Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: a cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. Am J Public Health 78(10):1336\u20131342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.78.10.1336","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2231_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2392498","author":"RA Karasek","year":"1979","unstructured":"Karasek RA (1979) Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: implications for job redesign. Adm Sci Q. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2392498","journal-title":"Adm Sci Q"},{"issue":"9","key":"2231_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x","volume":"16","author":"K Kroenke","year":"2001","unstructured":"Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW (2001) The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med 16(9):606\u2013613","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"key":"2231_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2021.110924","volume":"179","author":"E Langvik","year":"2021","unstructured":"Langvik E, Karlsen HR, Saksvik-Lehouillier I, S\u00f8rengaard TA (2021) Police employees working from home during COVID-19 lockdown: those with higher score on extraversion miss their colleagues more and are more likely to socialize with colleagues outside work. Pers Individ Dif 179:110924. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.paid.2021.110924","journal-title":"Pers Individ Dif"},{"issue":"7","key":"2231_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.22155","volume":"56","author":"N Magnavita","year":"2013","unstructured":"Magnavita N, Garbarino S (2013) Is absence related to work stress? A repeated cross-sectional study on a special police force. Am J Ind Med 56(7):765\u2013775. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajim.22155","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"2231_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199801153380307","volume":"338","author":"BS McEwen","year":"1998","unstructured":"McEwen BS (1998) Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med 338(3):171\u2013179. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJM199801153380307","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"2231_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-7609-0","volume":"19","author":"A Purba","year":"2019","unstructured":"Purba A, Demou E (2019) The relationship between organisational stressors and mental wellbeing within police officers: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 19(1):1286. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-019-7609-0","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"2231_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3898","DOI":"10.1177\/00332941231207957","volume":"128","author":"L Rabbing","year":"2025","unstructured":"Rabbing L, Lau B, Fostervold KI, Blenkinsopp J, Bj\u00f8rkelo B (2025) Enhancing self-reported assessment of working conditions in policing: revisiting the psychometric properties and applications of the Police Stress Questionnaire. Psychol Rep 128(5):3898\u20133916. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00332941231207957","journal-title":"Psychol Rep"},{"key":"2231_CR29","unstructured":"R\u00f8ysamb E (1997) Adolescent risk taking: Behaviour patterns and the role of emotions and cognitions (Doctoral dissertation, University of Oslo, Norway)"},{"issue":"4","key":"2231_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.5271\/sjweh.3632","volume":"43","author":"R Rugulies","year":"2017","unstructured":"Rugulies R, Aust B, Madsen IEH (2017) Effort\u2013reward imbalance at work and risk of depressive disorders. A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Scand J Work Environ Health 43(4):294\u2013306. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5271\/sjweh.3632","journal-title":"Scand J Work Environ Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"2231_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1177\/0013164405282471","volume":"66","author":"WB Schaufeli","year":"2006","unstructured":"Schaufeli WB, Bakker AB, Salanova M (2006) The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: a cross-national study. Educ Psychol Measur 66(4):701\u2013716. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0013164405282471","journal-title":"Educ Psychol Measur"},{"key":"2231_CR32","first-page":"217","volume-title":"Self-efficacy: thought control of action","author":"R Schwarzer","year":"1992","unstructured":"Schwarzer R (1992) Self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors: theoretical approaches and a new model. In: Schwarzer R (ed) Self-efficacy: thought control of action. Hemisphere, Washington, DC, pp 217\u2013243"},{"key":"2231_CR33","first-page":"35","volume-title":"Measures in health psychology: a user\u2019s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs","author":"R Schwarzer","year":"1995","unstructured":"Schwarzer R, Jerusalem M (1995) Generalized self-efficacy scale. In: Weinman J, Wright S, Johnston M (eds) Measures in health psychology: a user\u2019s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs. NFER-NELSON, Windsor, UK, pp 35\u201337"},{"issue":"1","key":"2231_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-8998.1.1.27","volume":"1","author":"J Siegrist","year":"1996","unstructured":"Siegrist J (1996) Adverse health effects of high-effort\/low-reward conditions. J Occup Health Psychol 1(1):27\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/1076-8998.1.1.27","journal-title":"J Occup Health Psychol"},{"key":"2231_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-32937-6_1","volume-title":"Work stress and health in a globalized economy: the model of effort\u2013reward imbalance","author":"J Siegrist","year":"2016","unstructured":"Siegrist J (2016) A theoretical model in the context of economic globalization. In: Siegrist J, Wahrendorf M (eds) Work stress and health in a globalized economy: the model of effort\u2013reward imbalance. Springer International Publishing, pp 3\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-32937-6_1"},{"issue":"8","key":"2231_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(03)00351-4","volume":"58","author":"J Siegrist","year":"2004","unstructured":"Siegrist J, Starke D, Chandola T, Godin I, Marmot M, Niedhammer I, Peter R (2004) The measurement of effort\u2013reward imbalance at work: European comparisons. Soc Sci Med 58(8):1483\u20131499. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0277-9536(03)00351-4","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"2231_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-008-0384-3","volume":"82","author":"J Siegrist","year":"2009","unstructured":"Siegrist J, Wege N, P\u00fchlhofer F, Wahrendorf M (2009) A short generic measure of work stress in the era of globalization: effort\u2013reward imbalance. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 82(8):1005\u20131013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00420-008-0384-3","journal-title":"Int Arch Occup Environ Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"2231_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/23311908.2022.2137246","volume":"9","author":"TA S\u00f8rengaard","year":"2022","unstructured":"S\u00f8rengaard TA, Langvik E, Olsen A, Saksvik-Lehouillier I (2022) Predictors of insomnia symptoms in police employees: a longitudinal investigation and comparison of personality and psychosocial work factors. Cogent Psychol 9(1):2137246. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/23311908.2022.2137246","journal-title":"Cogent Psychol"},{"issue":"10","key":"2231_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","volume":"166","author":"RL Spitzer","year":"2006","unstructured":"Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JBW, L\u00f6we B (2006) A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med 166(10):1092\u20131097. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"2231_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-024-09713-7","volume":"40","author":"LE Ugwu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ugwu LE, Idemudia ES (2024) Burnout and post-traumatic stress disorders in police officers: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Police Crim Psychol 40:645\u2013658. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11896-024-09713-7","journal-title":"J Police Crim Psychol"},{"issue":"5","key":"2231_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4530(03)00091-X","volume":"29","author":"H Ursin","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ursin H, Eriksen HR (2004) The cognitive activation theory of stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29(5):567\u2013592. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0306-4530(03)00091-X","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"issue":"5","key":"2231_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2004.06.043","volume":"60","author":"N van Vegchel","year":"2005","unstructured":"van Vegchel N, de Jonge J, Bosma H, Schaufeli W (2005) Reviewing the effort\u2013reward imbalance model: drawing up the balance of 45 empirical studies. Soc Sci Med 60(5):1117\u20131131. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2004.06.043","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"2231_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1108\/PIJPSM-06-2016-0097","volume":"40","author":"JM Violanti","year":"2017","unstructured":"Violanti JM, Charles LE, McCanlies E, Hartley TA, Baughman P, Andrew ME, Fekedulegn D, Ma CC, Mnatsakanova A, Burchfiel CM (2017) Police stressors and health: a state-of-the-art review. Policing 40(4):642\u2013656. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/PIJPSM-06-2016-0097","journal-title":"Policing"},{"issue":"5","key":"2231_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-018-1300-0","volume":"91","author":"JM Violanti","year":"2018","unstructured":"Violanti JM, Fekedulegn D, Gu JK, Allison P, Mnatsakanova A, Tinney-Zara C, Andrew ME (2018a) Effort\u2013reward imbalance in police work: associations with the cortisol awakening response. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 91(5):513\u2013522. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00420-018-1300-0","journal-title":"Int Arch Occup Environ Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"2231_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1177\/1098611118774764","volume":"21","author":"JM Violanti","year":"2018","unstructured":"Violanti JM, Mnatsakanova A, Andrew ME, Allison P, Gu JK, Fekedulegn D (2018b) Effort\u2013reward imbalance and overcommitment at work: associations with police burnout. Police Q 21(4):440\u2013460. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1098611118774764","journal-title":"Police Q"},{"issue":"8","key":"2231_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2005-858607","volume":"67","author":"O von dem Knesebeck","year":"2005","unstructured":"von dem Knesebeck O, David K, Siegrist J (2005) Psychosocial stress at work and musculoskeletal pain among police officers in special forces. Gesundheitswesen 67(8):674\u2013679. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1055\/s-2005-858607","journal-title":"Gesundheitswesen"},{"issue":"2","key":"2231_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1080\/02678370802180558","volume":"22","author":"TA Willis","year":"2008","unstructured":"Willis TA, O\u2019Connor DB, Smith L (2008) Investigating effort\u2013reward imbalance and work\u2013family conflict in relation to morningness\u2013eveningness and shift work. Work Stress 22(2):125\u2013137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02678370802180558","journal-title":"Work Stress"},{"issue":"1","key":"2231_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-020-03013-0","volume":"21","author":"L Wisting","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wisting L, Johnson SU, Bulik CM, Andreassen OA, R\u00f8 \u00d8, Bang L (2021) Psychometric properties of the Norwegian version of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) in a large female sample of adults with and without eating disorders. BMC Psychiatry 21(1):6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12888-020-03013-0","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"2231_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s10389-019-01112-1","volume":"29","author":"C Wolter","year":"2021","unstructured":"Wolter C, Santa Maria A, Georg S, Lesener T, Gusy B, Kleiber D, Renneberg B (2021) Relationships between effort\u2013reward imbalance and work engagement in police officers: taking a salutogenic perspective. J Public Health 29(1):177\u2013186. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10389-019-01112-1","journal-title":"J Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"2231_CR50","first-page":"276","volume":"48","author":"H Wu","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wu H, Gu G, Yu S (2014) Effect of occupational stress and effort-reward imbalance on sleep quality of people\u2019s policeman. Chin J Prev Med 48(4):276\u2013280","journal-title":"Chin J Prev Med"}],"container-title":["International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00420-026-02231-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00420-026-02231-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00420-026-02231-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T16:02:52Z","timestamp":1790352172000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00420-026-02231-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["2231"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00420-026-02231-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["0340-0131","1432-1246"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0340-0131","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-1246","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 March 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 August 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"29 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study protocol was approved by the Regional Committee for Medical and Health Research Ethics, South-East Norway (reference #2020\/140335), the National Centre for Research Data (reference #439242), and by the National Police Directorate (Reference #201900307).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethical approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants before participation.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Informed consent","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"42"}}