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Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), we examined the effects of CSE on marksmanship performance and prefrontal cortex (PFC) cerebral hemodynamics. We hypothesized that CSE will decrease performance and increase oxygenated (O\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      Hb) and deoxygenated (HHb) hemoglobin under cold stress.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Thirteen participants (24.3\u2009\u00b1\u20093.2 years) completed thermoneutral (TN, 24\u00a0\u00b0C air, no water immersion) and CSE (0\u00a0\u00b0C air, 15\u00a0\u00b0C water) visits. Before (pre-) and after (post-) exposure, participants completed simple marksmanship and shoot\/no-shoot tasks. The PFC O\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      Hb and HHb were measured via fNIRS. Repeated-measures ANOVAs assessed condition and time-course effects on marksmanship performance, core (T\n                      <jats:sub>C<\/jats:sub>\n                      ) and skin temperature (T\n                      <jats:sub>SK<\/jats:sub>\n                      ). A general linear model evaluated differences in \u03b2-values between conditions.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Simple marksmanship HHb decreased after CSE (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.001). Simple marksmanship post-TN saw a decrease in HHb compared to pre (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.004<\/jats:italic>\n                      ), but no change in O\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      Hb (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.060<\/jats:italic>\n                      ). Shoot\/no-shoot score increased across TN (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.005<\/jats:italic>\n                      ). Shoot\/no-shoot score decreased after CSE (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.005<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) with an increase in no-shots (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.027<\/jats:italic>\n                      ). Both shoot\/no-shoot score (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.008<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) and no-shots (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.006<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) were worse at post-CSE compared to post-TN. During shoot\/no-shoot a decrease in O\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      Hb (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.003<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) and HHb (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.013<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) was observed across TN. Both O\n                      <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                      Hb (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.003<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) and HHb (\n                      <jats:italic>p\u2009=\u20090.013<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) were greater at post-CSE than post-TN.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Acute CSE does not affect low-difficulty static marksmanship but does impair high-difficulty dynamic marksmanship tasks, potentially due to reduced cognitive reserve after CSE. Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying decrements in tactical performance are effectively evaluated using fNIRS.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-026-06463-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T21:34:47Z","timestamp":1791668087000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Prefrontal cortex hemodynamics and marksmanship accuracy following cold stress exposure"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2771-5042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachel M.","family":"Rauth-Luna","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8211-3863","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Owen F.","family":"Salmon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0219-2432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matt D.","family":"Segovia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8109-5498","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cierra B.","family":"Ugale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3964-4535","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kelly","family":"Rossler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9581-1225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cory M.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"6463_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1097\/WNP.0000000000000316","volume":"33","author":"JN Acharya","year":"2016","unstructured":"Acharya JN, Hani A, Cheek J, Thirumala P, Tsuchida TN (2016) American Clinical Neurophysiology Society Guideline 2: Guidelines for Standard Electrode Position Nomenclature. 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