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To extend previous movement-level analyses based on simplified musculoskeletal representations, anatomically detailed three-joint arm models comprising 19\u201326 muscles with nonlinear, joint-angle-dependent moment arms were used. This extension enabled direct evaluation of whether muscle-level computational models can resolve highly redundant muscle-tension distributions. The reaching task was designed with eight directions at\n \n \n $$\\text {45}^\\circ $$<\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 45<\/mml:mtext>\n \u2218<\/mml:mo>\n <\/mml:msup>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:alternatives>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n intervals in the horizontal plane, allowing evaluation with reduced directional bias. Several computational models were compared, with particular emphasis on the minimum muscle-stress-change (MSC) framework. The quadratic\n \n \n $$\\text {MSC}_2$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n MSC<\/mml:mtext>\n 2<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:msub>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:alternatives>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n , cubic\n \n \n $$\\text {MSC}_3$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n MSC<\/mml:mtext>\n 3<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:msub>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:alternatives>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n , and minimum muscle-tension-change (MTC) models reproduced the measured arm movements reasonably well; among the muscle-level models,\n \n \n $$\\text {MSC}_2$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n MSC<\/mml:mtext>\n 2<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:msub>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:alternatives>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n provided the most accurate predictions, particularly for arm posture and the direction-dependent wrist-joint contribution. This level of accuracy justified evaluation of the predicted muscle-recruitment patterns. The MSC framework preferentially recruited muscles with larger physiological cross-sectional areas and avoided excessive loading of thinner muscles, whereas the MTC model was more strongly influenced by moment-arm values and sometimes assigned relatively large tensions to thinner muscles. The\n \n \n $$\\text {MSC}_3$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n MSC<\/mml:mtext>\n 3<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:msub>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:alternatives>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n model recruited nearly all muscles in the 26-muscle expanded arm model but showed slightly lower movement-reproduction accuracy than the\n \n \n $$\\text {MSC}_2$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n MSC<\/mml:mtext>\n 2<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:msub>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:alternatives>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n model. Thus,\n \n \n $$\\text {MSC}_2$$<\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n MSC<\/mml:mtext>\n 2<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:msub>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:alternatives>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n provided a balanced account of task-space behavior, joint-space coordination, and muscle recruitment. These findings extend muscle-stress-based optimization from movement reproduction to physiologically interpretable recruitment prediction and suggest that synergy-like cooperative patterns can emerge from anatomical constraints and stress-based optimization.\n <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00422-026-01056-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T03:36:28Z","timestamp":1787369788000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Muscle-level evaluation of the minimum muscle-stress-change model in human three-joint reaching using anatomically expanded arm models"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"120","author":[{"given":"Masazumi","family":"Katayama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"1056_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1243\/EMED_JOUR_1979_008_010_02","volume":"8","author":"AA Amis","year":"1979","unstructured":"Amis AA, Dowson D, Wright V (1979) Muscle strengths and musculoskeletal geometry of the upper limb. 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