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Olfactory training (OT) has been shown to induce structural changes in OB, but whether sex influences OT-related plasticity remains unclear. This study aimed to examine how sex differences modulate OB volume\u2013function relationships and OT-related OB neuroplasticity. Participants included 27 women and 11 men with acquired olfactory dysfunction who underwent Sniffin\u2019 Sticks Test and T2-weighted MRI before and after a 12-week OT program of twice-daily exposure to four odorants. OB volume was measured by ITK-SNAP. Pooled baseline analysis revealed no significant correlation between OB volume and composite threshold\u2013discrimination\u2013identification (TDI) score. Women showed a significant correlation between baseline OB volume and TDI on both sides (left:\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.458,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.016; right:\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.413,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.032), whereas no significant associations were observed in men. Following OT, the overall sample showed bilateral OB volume increases (left: mean difference\u2009=\u20094.70\u2009\u00b1\u20092.16,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.036; right: mean difference\u2009=\u20095.64\u2009\u00b1\u20091.91,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.005) and improvements in odor discrimination (t\u2009=\u20092.12,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.040) and composite TDI score (t\u2009=\u20092.13,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.040). Men consistently presented larger OB volumes (F(1, 36)\u2009=\u20096.63,\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.014), and no sex-by-session interaction effects were observed. It appears that sex can mask cross-sectional associations between OB volume and olfactory performance, supporting sex-aware analysis when interpreting baseline OB morphometry. In contrast, OT elicits comparable OB volume increases across sexes, suggesting a similar pattern of training-induced structural plasticity.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-026-03126-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T04:26:23Z","timestamp":1779942383000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sex differences modulate olfactory bulb volume\u2013function relationships but not olfactory training-induced plasticity"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"231","author":[{"given":"Yi-Ting","family":"Hsieh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yin-Chun","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heather Grace Piluden","family":"Dulnuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiing-Feng","family":"Lirng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yun-Ting","family":"Chao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"3126_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anl.2025.01.006","volume":"52","author":"M Baran","year":"2025","unstructured":"Baran M, Kalcioglu MT, Mutlu A, Atalay B, Dogan MB, Ozturk G (2025) Association of olfactory training with olfactory bulb morphology in adults with post-viral long-lasting olfactory dysfunction: a COVID-19 related prospective study. 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