{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T23:55:47Z","timestamp":1790812547500,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783382400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":86,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01GM085232"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01GM085232"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasitol Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    is a zoonotic protozoan parasite that infects a high proportion of threatened southern sea otters (\n                    <jats:italic>Enhydra lutris nereis<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and is an important cause of mortality in this host species. Recently, a point-of-care rapid antibody test (POCT) for\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection was developed for detection of IgG and IgM antibodies in human sera. We aimed to validate the POCT using southern sea otter sera against a gold standard state of infection, based on histopathology, immunohistochemistry, parasite isolation, and PCR. In this study, we hypothesized that the POCT rapid screening tool would offer both high sensitivity and specificity (&gt;\u200990%) for screening\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection in archived serum samples from southern sea otters with known\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection status. We applied the POCT assay to sera from 109 sea otters (49 negative, 60 positive), and this assay demonstrated an overall sensitivity of 93.3% and specificity of 93.9%. These results indicate that the POCT may be a useful screening tool for\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    exposure in sea otters. Utilization of this test in wildlife rehabilitation centers would allow for rapid, on-site, and cost-efficient screening of\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    exposure that could aid in the diagnosis and clinical management of sea otters with suspected toxoplasmosis. Future efforts could target POCT validation in species such as Hawaiian monk seals and Hector\u2019s dolphins, for which\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii is<\/jats:italic>\n                    listed as a threat to species survival.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-026-08725-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T13:17:51Z","timestamp":1783430271000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Validating a point-of-care test for Toxoplasma gondii infection in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis)"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"125","author":[{"given":"Ellis","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Devinn","family":"Sinnott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cara L.","family":"Field","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Murray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P\u00e1draig","family":"Duignan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melissa","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karen","family":"Shapiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"8725_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420092370","volume-title":"Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans","author":"JP Dubey","year":"2016","unstructured":"Dubey JP (2016) Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans, 2nd edn. CRC, Boca Raton, Florida, p 336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1201\/9781420092370","edition":"2"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"8725_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(00)00119-7","volume":"45","author":"IA Gardner","year":"2000","unstructured":"Gardner IA, Stryhn H, Lind P, Collins MT (2000) Conditional dependence between tests affects the diagnosis and surveillance of animal diseases. Prev Vet Med 45(1\u20132):107\u2013122. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0167-5877(00)00119-7","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"8725_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2014.02.013","volume":"48","author":"K Hajian-Tilaki","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hajian-Tilaki K (2014) Sample size estimation in diagnostic test studies of biomedical informatics. J Biomed Inform 48:193\u2013204. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jbi.2014.02.013","journal-title":"J Biomed Inform"},{"key":"8725_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2242","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0806449106","volume":"106","author":"CK Johnson","year":"2009","unstructured":"Johnson CK, Tinker MT, Estes JA, Conrad PA, Staedler M, Miller MA, Jessup DA, Mazet JAK (2009) Prey choice and habitat use drive sea otter pathogen exposure in a resource-limited coastal system. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106:2242\u20132247. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.0806449106","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"8725_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-019-03680-2","volume":"39","author":"AH Khan","year":"2020","unstructured":"Khan AH, Noordin R (2020) Serological and molecular rapid diagnostic tests for Toxoplasma infection in humans and animals. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 39:19\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10096-019-03680-2","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis"},{"key":"8725_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-39.3.495","volume":"39","author":"C Kreuder","year":"2003","unstructured":"Kreuder C, Miller MA, Jessup DA, Lowenstine LJ, Harris MD, Ames JA, Carpenter TE, Conrad PA, Mazet JAK (2003) Patterns of mortality in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) from 1998\u20132001. J Wildl Dis 39:495\u2013509. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/0090-3558-39.3.495","journal-title":"J Wildl Dis"},{"key":"8725_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4527","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.12927","volume":"17","author":"C Krusor","year":"2015","unstructured":"Krusor C, Smith WA, Tinker MT, Silver M, Conrad PA, Shapiro K (2015) Concentration and retention of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts by marine snails demonstrate a novel mechanism for transmission of terrestrial zoonotic pathogens in coastal ecosystems. Environ Microbiol 17:4527\u20134537. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1462-2920.12927","journal-title":"Environ Microbiol"},{"key":"8725_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1645\/0022-3395(2002)088[0594:EOAIFA]2.0.CO;2","volume":"88","author":"MA Miller","year":"2002","unstructured":"Miller MA, Gardner IA, Packham A, Mazet JK, Hanni KD, Jessup D, Estes J, Jameson R, Dodd E, Barr BC, Lowenstine LJ, Gulland FM, Conrad PA (2002) Evaluation of an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) for demonstration of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). J Parasitol 88:594\u2013599. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1645\/0022-3395(2002)088[0594:EOAIFA]2.0.CO;2","journal-title":"J Parasitol"},{"key":"8725_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315144931","volume-title":"CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine","author":"M Miller","year":"2018","unstructured":"Miller M, Shapiro K, Murray MJ, Haulena M, Raverty S (2018) Protozoan parasites of marine mammals. In: Gulland FMD, Dierauf LA, Whitman KL (eds) CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, 3rd edn. CRC, Boca Raton, Florida., pp 425\u2013470. doi: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1201\/9781315144931","edition":"3"},{"key":"8725_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2020.00582","volume":"7","author":"MA Miller","year":"2020","unstructured":"Miller MA, Moriarty ME, Henkel L, Tinker MT, Burgess TL, Batac FI, Dodd E, Young C, Harris MD, Jessup DA, Ames J, Conrad PA, Packham AE, Johnson CK (2020) Predators, disease, and environmental change in the nearshore ecosystem: mortality in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) from 1998\u20132012. Front Mar Sci 7:582. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmars.2020.00582","journal-title":"Front Mar Sci"},{"key":"8725_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585501","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2021.585501","volume":"8","author":"MA Miller","year":"2021","unstructured":"Miller MA, Moriarty ME, Duignan PJ, Zabka TS, Dodd E, Batac FI, Young C, Reed A, Harris MD, Greenwald K, Kudela RM, Murray MJ, Gulland FMD, Miller PE, Hayashi K, Gunther-Harrington CT, Tinker MT, Toy-Choutka S (2021) Clinical signs and pathology associated with domoic acid toxicosis in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). Front Mar Sci 8:585501. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmars.2021.585501","journal-title":"Front Mar Sci"},{"key":"8725_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1116899","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2023.1116899","volume":"10","author":"MA Miller","year":"2023","unstructured":"Miller MA, Newberry CA, Sinnott DM, Batac FI, Greenwald K, Reed A, Young C, Harris MD, Packham AE, Shapiro K (2023) Newly detected, virulent Toxoplasma gondii COUG strain causing fatal steatitis and toxoplasmosis in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). Front Mar Sci 10:1116899. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmars.2023.1116899","journal-title":"Front Mar Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"8725_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-21-00179","volume":"59","author":"SJ Robinson","year":"2023","unstructured":"Robinson SJ, Amlin A, Barbieri MM (2023) Terrestrial pathogen pollutant, Toxoplasma gondii, threatens Hawaiian monk seals (Neomonachus schauinslandi) following heavy runoff events. J Wildl Dis 59(1):1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/JWD-D-21-00179","journal-title":"J Wildl Dis"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"8725_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2012.11.001","volume":"192","author":"WD Roe","year":"2013","unstructured":"Roe WD, Howe L, Baker EJ, Burrows L, Hunter SA (2013) An atypical genotype of Toxoplasma gondii as a cause of mortality in Hector\u2019s dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori). Vet Parasitol 192(1\u20133):67\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.vetpar.2012.11.001","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol"},{"key":"8725_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2019.e00049","volume":"15","author":"K Shapiro","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shapiro K, Bahia-Oliveira L, Dixon B, Dum\u00e8tre A, de Wit LA, VanWormer E, Villena I (2019a) Environmental transmission of Toxoplasma gondii: Oocysts in water, soil and food. Food Waterborne Parasitol 15:e00049. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fawpar.2019.e00049","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol"},{"issue":"1909","key":"8725_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20191334","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2019.1334","volume":"286","author":"K Shapiro","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shapiro K, VanWormer E, Packham A, Dodd E, Conrad PA, Miller M (2019b) Type X strains of Toxoplasma gondii are virulent for southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) and present in felids from nearby watersheds. Proc Royal Soc B 286(1909):20191334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rspb.2019.1334","journal-title":"Proc Royal Soc B"},{"key":"8725_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0332223","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0332223","volume":"20","author":"DM Sinnott","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sinnott DM, Miller M, Arranz-Sol\u00eds D, Rodriguez F, Saeij JPJ, Batac F, Greenwald K, Young C, Harris MD, Gomes M, Shapiro K (2025) Fatal Toxoplasma gondii COUG strain infections in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis): New insight on contributing factors and parasite serotyping. PLoS ONE 20:e0332223. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0332223","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"8725_CR19","volume-title":"Stata Statistical Software: Release 19. College Station","author":"StataCorp","year":"2025","unstructured":"StataCorp (2025) Stata Statistical Software: Release 19. College Station. StataCorp LLC, TX"},{"key":"8725_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1645\/22-72","volume":"109","author":"J Strules","year":"2023","unstructured":"Strules J, Dawant T, Riese K, Gerhold R, Brown J, Olfenbuttel C, Deperno CS, Hunt BJ, von Dohlen AR (2023) Use of a point of care test to determine the prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in black bears from North Carolina and Pennsylvania. J Parasitol 109:221\u2013224. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1645\/22-72","journal-title":"J Parasitol"},{"issue":"4","key":"8725_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-19-00008","volume":"56","author":"N Thomas","year":"2020","unstructured":"Thomas N, White CL, Saliki J, Schuler K, Lynch D, Nielsen O, Dubey JP, Knowles S (2020) Canine distemper virus in the sea otter (Enhydra lutris) population in Washington State, USA. J Wildl Dis 56(4):873\u2013883. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/JWD-D-19-00008","journal-title":"J Wildl Dis"},{"key":"8725_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2017.00307","volume":"5","author":"R Trevethan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Trevethan R (2017) Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values: foundations, pliabilities, and pitfalls in research and practice. Front Public Health 5:307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2017.00307","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"8725_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1645\/24-24","volume":"110","author":"A von Rosypal","year":"2024","unstructured":"von Rosypal A, Randall S, Grays J, Dugo MA, Hunt BJ, Brown J, Van Why K, Ammar S, Gerhold R (2024) Rapid point-of-care testing for detection of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in black vultures and ring-billed gulls from Pennsylvania. J Parasitol 110:206\u2013209. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1645\/24-24","journal-title":"J Parasitol"},{"key":"8725_CR23","unstructured":"World organisation for animal health (WOAH) (2023) Principles and methods of validation of diagnostic assays for infectious diseases. In: manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals. WOAH, Paris. Available at: https:\/\/www.woah.org\/fileadmin\/Home\/fr\/Health_standards\/tahm\/1.01.06_VALIDATION.pdf. Accessed 13 May 2026"}],"container-title":["Parasitology Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00436-026-08725-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00436-026-08725-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1007\/s00436-026-08725-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T23:13:33Z","timestamp":1790810013000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1007\/s00436-026-08725-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["8725"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00436-026-08725-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["0932-0113","1432-1955"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0932-0113","type":"print"},{"value":"1432-1955","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"9 April 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 July 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 July 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Serum samples from southern sea otters included in this study were obtained from animals recovered through authorized stranding response by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), and\/or rehabilitation of animals that initially stranded alive by The Marine Mammal Center (TMMC), and Monterey Bay Aquarium (MBA). All handling protocols were approved through applicable federal permits and regulatory authorizations as detailed below. Animals included in this study consisted of stranded free-ranging southern sea otters that were found dead, died during care, or were humanely euthanized when necessary for animal welfare reasons; no animals were euthanized specifically for the purposes of this research.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"CDFW handled stranded sea otters under Sect.\u00a0 109(h) of the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), in accordance with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) regulations implementing the MMPA (50 CFR 18.22[a]) and the U.S. Endangered Species Act (50 CFR 17.21[c][3]). TMMC and MBA conducted animal recovery, rehabilitation, humane euthanasia, and sample collection under USFWS permits MA101713-1 and PER4324646 (TMMC), and MA032027 and MA186914 (MBA), respectively. These statutes and permits authorize wildlife agencies and rehabilitation centers to intervene on behalf of free-ranging marine mammals for their protection and welfare, including rehabilitation and humane euthanasia when indicated. All animal handling and euthanasia procedures were conducted under standardized institutional animal care and veterinary oversight protocols, and gross necropsies were performed on all sea otters by veterinary pathologists and trained staff at CDFW and TMMC. Serum and other biological samples were collected from fresh or previously frozen\/thawed carcasses during postmortem examination.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"117"}}