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Genet."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Episignatures are popular tools for the diagnosis of rare neurodevelopmental disorders. They are commonly based on a set of differentially methylated CpGs used in combination with a support vector machine model. DNA methylation (DNAm) data often include missing values due to changes in data generation technology and batch effects. While many normalization methods exist for DNAm data, their impact on episignature performance have never been assessed. In addition, technologies to quantify DNAm evolve quickly and this may lead to poor transposition of existing episignatures generated on deprecated array versions to new ones. Indeed, probe removal between array versions, technologies or during preprocessing leads to missing values. Thus, the effect of missing data on episignature performance must also be carefully evaluated and addressed through imputation or an innovative approach to episignatures design. In this paper, we used data from patients suffering from Kabuki and Sotos syndrome to evaluate the influence of normalization methods, classification models and missing data on the prediction performances of two existing episignatures. We compare how six popular normalization methods for methylarray data affect episignature classification performances in Kabuki and Sotos syndromes and provide best practice suggestions when building new episignatures. In this setting, we show that Illumina, Noob or Funnorm normalization methods achieved higher classification performances on the testing sets compared to Quantile, Raw and Swan normalization methods. We further show that penalized logistic regression and support vector machines perform best in the classification of Kabuki and Sotos syndrome patients. Then, we describe a new paradigm to build episignatures based on the detection of differentially methylated regions (DMRs) and evaluate their performance compared to classical differentially methylated cytosines (DMCs)-based episignatures in the presence of missing data. We show that the performance of classical DMC-based episignatures suffers from the presence of missing data more than the DMR-based approach. We present a comprehensive evaluation of how the normalization of DNA methylation data affects episignature performance, using three popular classification models. We further evaluate how missing data affect those models\u2019 predictions. Finally, we propose a novel methodology to develop episignatures based on differentially methylated regions identification and show how this method slightly outperforms classical episignatures in the presence of missing data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-023-02609-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,27]],"date-time":"2023-10-27T14:02:11Z","timestamp":1698415331000},"page":"1721-1735","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Comprehensive evaluation of the implementation of episignatures for diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs)"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"142","author":[{"given":"Edoardo","family":"Giuili","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robin","family":"Grolaux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catarina Z. N. 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