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Coinfections, where two or more species of parasite are present in a host, are a common phenomenon across species. Coinfecting parasites can interact directly or indirectly via their manipulation of (and susceptibility to) the immune system of their shared host. Helminths, such as the cestode\n                    <jats:italic>Schistocephalus solidus<\/jats:italic>\n                    , are well known to suppress immunity of their host (threespine stickleback,\n                    <jats:italic>Gasterosteus aculeatus<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), potentially facilitating other parasite species. Yet, hosts can evolve a more robust immune response (as seen in some stickleback populations), potentially turning facilitation into inhibition. Using wild-caught stickleback from 20 populations with non-zero\n                    <jats:italic>S. solidus<\/jats:italic>\n                    prevalence, we tested an a priori hypothesis that\n                    <jats:italic>S. solidus<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection facilitates infection by other parasites. Consistent with this hypothesis, individuals with\n                    <jats:italic>S. solidus<\/jats:italic>\n                    infections have 18.6% higher richness of other parasites compared to\n                    <jats:italic>S. solidus<\/jats:italic>\n                    -uninfected individuals from the same lakes. This facilitation-like trend is stronger in lakes where\n                    <jats:italic>S. solidus<\/jats:italic>\n                    is particularly successful but is reversed in lakes with sparse and smaller cestodes (indicative of stronger host immunity). These results suggest that a geographic mosaic of host\u2013parasite co-evolution might lead to a mosaic of between-parasite facilitation\/inhibition effects.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-023-05409-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,29]],"date-time":"2023-06-29T22:01:30Z","timestamp":1688076090000},"page":"317-325","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Opening a can of worms: a test of the co-infection facilitation hypothesis"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"204","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0271-1303","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria L.","family":"Rodgers","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel I.","family":"Bolnick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"5409_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0b013e3283524d90","volume":"7","author":"AA Adegnika","year":"2012","unstructured":"Adegnika AA, Kremsner PG (2012) Epidemiology of malaria and helminth interaction: a review from 2001 to 2011. 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Data for the current analyses are archived on Dryad (data:\n                      \n                      ; code:\n                      \n                      ).","order":6,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Availability of data and materials"}},{"value":"Code for the current analyses are archived on Dryad (data:\n                      \n                      ; code:\n                      \n                      ).","order":7,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Code availability"}}]}}