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The study also examines the relationship between these biomarkers and periodontal status across different stages of cognitive impairment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Material and Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 230 individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD,\n                      <jats:italic>n =<\/jats:italic>\n                      52), mild cognitive impairment (MCI,\n                      <jats:italic>n =<\/jats:italic>\n                      51), subjective cognitive impairment (SCI,\n                      <jats:italic>n =<\/jats:italic>\n                      51), and controls (\n                      <jats:italic>n =<\/jats:italic>\n                      76) were enrolled. Participants underwent clinical and radiological oral examinations. Cerebrospinal fluid samples were collected from all groups except controls. Stimulated saliva and blood were collected during oral examination. IL-34 and CSF-1 levels were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Salivary IL-34 levels were increased in AD compared to SCI (\n                      <jats:italic>p =<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.010) and controls (\n                      <jats:italic>p &lt;<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.001), and in MCI compared to controls (\n                      <jats:italic>p &lt;<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.001). Elevated salivary CSF-1 levels were observed in AD compared to SCI (\n                      <jats:italic>p =<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.003). Salivary IL-34 was inversely associated with Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores (\n                      <jats:italic>p &lt;<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.010) and body mass index (\n                      <jats:italic>p =<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.040), while CSF-1 was associated with age (\n                      <jats:italic>p =<\/jats:italic>\n                      0.015). IL-34 and CSF-1 levels did not differ in cerebrospinal fluid between groups, and periodontal status did not affect the levels in any biofluid measured.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Salivary IL-34 is increased in AD patients and is associated with MMSE scores.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Identifying reliable biomarkers for AD is crucial for early detection and intervention. This study suggests that salivary IL-34 could serve as a potential biomarker for AD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-025-06376-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]],"date-time":"2025-05-20T08:34:29Z","timestamp":1747730069000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Elevated levels of salivary interleukin-34 in patients suffering from Alzheimer\u2019s disease"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Reuben","family":"Clark","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ronaldo","family":"Lira-Junior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leif","family":"Jansson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Eriksdotter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marianne","family":"Schultzberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pirkko","family":"Pussinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K\u00e5re","family":"Buhlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisabeth A.","family":"Bostr\u00f6m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"6376_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.14283\/jpad.2021.15","volume":"8","author":"XX Zhang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhang XX, Tian Y, Wang ZT, Ma YH, Tan L, Yu JT (2021) The epidemiology of alzheimer\u2019s disease modifiable risk factors and prevention. 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