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Linear roughness (Ra) and average depth (Rz) were assessed before and after saliva (G3.1) and smoke (G4.1) exposure. Independent and paired t-tests compared measurements over 5 days of evaluation [biofilm, microorganisms (CFU\/mL), pH, and volumetric surface roughness (Sa)], measurements were taken before (T0) and after (T1) exposure to saliva and cigarette smoke.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Increased roughness post-exposure to cigarette smoke Ra (p\u2009=\u20090.003) and Rz (p\u2009=\u20090.014) in G4.1 at T1 (p\u2009=\u20090.046), and higher roughness over time (Ra: 0.139\u2009\u00b1\u20090.007; Rz: 0.741\u2009\u00b1\u20090.026), unlike G3.1 (Ra: 0.122\u2009\u00b1\u20090.002; Rz: 0.616\u2009\u00b1\u20090.021). G1 had the highest CFU (8.57\u2009\u00d7\u2009108), significantly higher than the G4.2 (5.33\u2009\u00d7\u2009108) and G3.2 (2\u2009\u00d7\u2009108). From 24 to 96 h, pH in G4.2 (5.75) and G1 (4.45) showed slight decreases, G2 (6.76) and G3.2 (6.35) increased. G1 had the highest Sa (48.97\u2009\u00b1\u200914.19), compared to G2 (4.27\u2009\u00b1\u20091.14), G3 (7.60\u2009\u00b1\u20094.28), and G4 (13.98\u2009\u00b1\u20098.18).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Cigarette smoke exposure elevated surface roughness and enhanced bacterial adherence on aligners. Clinical Relevance: Reinforce smoking cessation and strict oral hygiene protocols for aligner-wearing patients. In vivo studies are warranted to confirm these findings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-025-06720-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T03:26:20Z","timestamp":1768620380000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effect of cigarette smoke on surface roughness and bacterial adhesion of orthodontic aligners: an in vitro investigation"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6249-5518","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kelly","family":"Galisteu-Luiz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5008-7878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fl\u00e1vio","family":"de Mendon\u00e7a Copello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0113-6810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karla","family":"Lorene de Fran\u00e7a Leite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3528-1418","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mylena","family":"da Rocha Cavalcante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5955-1702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Larine","family":"Ferreira Lira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8017-813X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenderson","family":"Santos Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3301-5770","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah","family":"Pereira Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6032-0765","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ingrid","family":"Cristina Pinto da Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4447-4477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriela","family":"Drago Vidal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7560-6926","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Nelson Elias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9363-9772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00edsa","family":"Schubach da Costa Barreto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3937-415X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margareth","family":"Maria Gomes de Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"6720_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.2319\/061614-436.1","volume":"20","author":"G Rossini","year":"2014","unstructured":"Rossini G, Parrini S, Castroflorio T, Deregibus A, Debernardi CL (2014) Efficacy of clear aligners in controlling orthodontic tooth movement: A systematic review. 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