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Maternal and newborn cytokine levels\u2014specifically interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and the IL-6\/IL-10 ratio\u2014were measured at the first prenatal visit at the time of study enrolment and at birth to evaluate inflammatory responses and homeostatic balance.\u00a0Neither maternal nor newborn cytokine levels differed significantly between cases and controls. Significant sex-specific differences were observed in neurodevelopmental outcomes related to maternal SARS-CoV-2 exposure. Female infants exposed in utero showed significantly reduced performance in orientation and state regulation measures compared to exposed male infants and unexposed male and female controls.\u00a0The findings suggest that SARS-CoV-2-induced MIA \u2014 not limited to IL-6\/IL-10 balance \u2014 may have a differential impact on early neurodevelopment based on sex, underscoring the necessity for targeted interventions to mitigate these effects. Future studies should explore the mechanisms underlying these sex-specific differences and their long-term implications for neurodevelopment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-025-02837-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,27]],"date-time":"2025-08-27T09:38:17Z","timestamp":1756287497000},"page":"239-251","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Sex-specific vulnerabilities in early human neurodevelopment following SARS-CoV-2-induced maternal immune activation"],"prefix":"10.1007","volume":"35","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5844-3141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandre","family":"D\u00edaz-Pons","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4571-769X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"Casta\u00f1o-Casta\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0627-1827","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V\u00edctor","family":"Ortiz-Garc\u00eda de la Foz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0570-5352","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa","family":"Ayesa-Arriola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"2837_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rpsm.2020.12.003","volume":"14","author":"R Ayesa-Arriola","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ayesa-Arriola R, L\u00f3pez-D\u00edaz \u00c1, Ruiz-Veguilla M, Leza JC, Saura LF, Crespo-Facorro B (2021) COVID-19 as a unique opportunity to unravel the link between prenatal maternal infection, brain development and neuropsychiatric disorders in offspring. 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